Reprinted from the Ocracoke Observer.

The eastern towhee, a strikingly handsome bird that — good looks notwithstanding — is perhaps more noted for its many vocalizations.

Towhee is an onomatopoeic description of one of its most common calls, coined in 1731 by the naturalist and bird artist, Mark Catesby.

But well before that, the eastern towhee played a minor role in North Carolina’s early history. John White was the governor in 1587 of the small colony on Roanoke Island that later became known as the Lost Colony and was the grandfather of Virginia Dare, the first English child born in North America.

White was also a cartographer and an accomplished artist. During his time on Roanoke, he drew many sketches of the flora and fauna, including both sexes of the towhee, which are the first depicted renderings of the species.

When one thinks of a sparrow, many envision drab-colored birds with subtle streaking, spots and eye lines that can make species identification sometimes challenging. Many will be surprised to learn that a towhee is also a member of the sparrow family.

The male has a black head, neck and shoulders, a white chest and rust-red wings and sides.

The female has the same color pattern as the male but is dark brown where the male is black colored. Both have long tails, a noted trait for all six towhee species in North America.

Throughout most of its distribution range, the eye color of these birds is bright red, but if you find yourself birding in Florida or the southeastern coastal regions beginning on the Outer Banks, you may see towhees whose eye color is white or straw colored.

The yellowish straw color eyes may be the result of interbreeding between the white-eye and red-eye individuals. The towhees on Ocracoke have mostly red- and straw-colored eyes. Pure white eye color individuals are rare.

Eastern towhees nest throughout the eastern United States and southeast Canada. Northern populations are migratory. Southern populations, including Ocracoke, are year-round residents.

Although normally hidden in thickets and on the ground throughout Ocracoke Island, in the spring and early summer, they will perch on top of a shrub or small tree and sing loudly.

Females build nests and incubate eggs and both sexes provide parental care and will drive off would-be predators approaching the nest.

It is not only their vocalizations that indicate they are nearby. The eastern towhee uses a distinctive foot-scratching behavior to displace loose leaves on the ground and uncover arthropod prey. This foraging behavior occurs more in winter when much of its food comes from the ground.

Omnivores, their diet varies with the season, and they consume seeds, fruits and a wide variety of invertebrates, beetles, moths, caterpillars, grasshoppers and crickets.

During spring migration you may be pleasantly surprised to see one resting in your backyard from a long night’s journey into day. Unfortunately, that is when they are most vulnerable to predators. The hazards of migration are many. Because they are ground birds, they are susceptible to predators, including pets.

Their biggest threat occurs during migration, which is only nocturnal. After a long night’s journey into day and exhausted, they rest on the ground making them susceptible to predators, especially cats.

Listen: The Macaulay Library at the Cornell Lab of Ornithology has a variety of eastern towhees recordings.

When to see: Year-round. More easily seen in spring when they will sing at the top of bushes and small trees 

Where: Throughout the island where there are thickets. Springer’s Point is a good location

If you thumb through a bird field guide published before 1995 that includes eastern North America, you will not find an eastern towhee. You will, however, see a bird with a striking resemblance that is a rufous-sided towhee. It is one and the same.

The official arbiter of bird nomenclature, The American Ornithologists’ Union, determined that this bird and its counterpart in the west, the spotted towhee (Pipilo erythrophthalmus) and formerly lumped together as subspecies, were split and each received full species status.

So why are they famous for their sounds? In addition to the sound of its name, it makes a call described as “cherwink.” But it is the song that I find so impressive, which sounds almost exactly as “Drink your teeeeeee.”

Make mine yaupon.

This story is provided courtesy of the Ocracoke Observer, a newspaper covering Ocracoke island. Coastal Review is partnering with the Ocracoke Observer to provide readers with more environmental and lifestyle stories of interest along our coast. 

The weakfish is a beautiful marine species, but is it really a “weak fish?”

According to fishers up and down the East Coast, that is the furthest thing from the truth.

Weakfish are known as strong fighters and give the most advanced fishers a challenge in hooking and landing them. The most challenging part of catching them is not to rip the hook out of their soft mouths.

They resemble and are often confused with the spotted sea trout. In North Carolina, this species is also known as either a gray trout, or just plain trout because of the similarity to the spotted sea trout, which is a completely different fish.

“Weakfish are most common along the Atlantic Coast from North Carolina to New York. The fish migrate seasonally, moving generally south and more offshore in the fall and winter months, and inshore and north in the spring and summertime,” said Tracey Bauer, North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries weakfish biologist.

Weakfish have a dark olive-green coloration on top and are silvery on the bottom half of their bodies. Their backs and sides may have purple, lavender, green, blue, golden or copper colors mixed in. The sides are reflective with dark blotches that look like wavy lines running down the side of the fish, but not into the fins, which are yellow. They have two large canine-like teeth in the upper jaw.

“The spotted pattern is how you tell the weakfish apart from the spotted sea trout because the spots do not appear on the tail or second dorsal fins,” said Bauer.

The weakfish can grow to be 36 inches in length, but most specimens range between 12 and 16 inches long.

This species is an omnivore that has adapted to whatever food is available throughout its range. They will eat other smaller fish, crabs, shrimp, butterfish, small clams and herring.

Weakfish are considered adults when they are a year old. In northern reaches, females mature at 10 inches in length and males just slightly smaller at 9.9 inches long. Weakfish in North Carolina waters tend to reproduce when females reach 6.9 inches in length and males reach 6.5 inches.

“Weakfish spawn in the estuarine and nearshore reaches of the coast after they migrate inshore during the spring. Weakfish in North Carolina spawn over a longer period of time and begin spawning earlier than areas to the north,” Bauer said.

Spawning season runs from March to September, with peak activity from April to June. By comparison, in New York Bight, which includes the Delaware Bay through New York, the season runs from May to mid-July.

Weakfish are described as batch spawners, meaning they spawn multiple times over a single spawning season. Weakfish have been estimated to spawn anywhere between once every two days to once every 22 days, for a total of anywhere between four and 66 spawns per season. These multiple spawns mean weakfish have been estimated to release up to 11.8 million eggs per year, though the number can be as low as only 740,000.

Younger weakfish spawn less frequently than older weakfish.

Weakfish larvae range from 1/16 to 1/14 inch in length when they hatch. This species larvae have been collected in nearshore waters to offshore in coastal studies.

Weakfish prefer to use estuaries as their nursery grounds. Sampling of North Carolina sounds showed that juvenile weakfish were at their highest numbers in areas the North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries has designated as a secondary nursery habitat regions, such as shallow bays or navigation channels characterized by moderate depths, moderately high salinities with sand or sand-grass bottoms, rather than the main nursery areas made up of shallow tributaries with low salinity and mud or mud-grass habitat. In the Chesapeake and Delaware bays, juvenile weakfish usually move from high- to low-salinity areas during summer and return to high-salinity waters in the fall and leave the estuaries typically by December.

Young weakfish can be found along the Atlantic Coast from Long Island to North Carolina at depths of 29.5 to 85 feet, usually during the late summer and fall. Researchers discovered that weakfish younger than a year old were caught in ocean trawl surveys along the coast of North Carolina at depths of 29.5-59 feet during the fall and winter, and from North Carolina to Florida at depths of 29.5-36 feet during the winter and early spring, Bauer said.

Adult weakfish seasonally migrate between offshore and inshore waters. The warming of coastal waters in spring usually triggers an inshore and northerly migration route of adult fish from their wintering grounds to estuaries, sounds, and bays. Larger fish tend to be the first to move and congregate in the northern part of their range.

Catch records from the pound net and haul seine fisheries in Pamlico Sound, Chesapeake Bay and Delaware Bay tell researchers that larger fish are then followed by a second group of smaller fish during summer. Just after they arrive, weakfish return to the larger bays and maybe to the ocean to spawn. In northern areas, large numbers of adults spend the summer in ocean waters instead of in estuaries.

As water temperatures drop during the fall, weakfish form into schools and move offshore and typically south along the coast. It appears that the continental shelf from Chesapeake Bay to Cape Lookout is the primary wintering ground for weakfish.

“The growth rate of weakfish is very fast during their first year,” said Bauer.

In Delaware Bay, juveniles may grow from 0.83 to 1.18 inches per month from June to September and can grow to lengths between 3.94 to 6.9 inches in length throughout the range by the end of their first year.

“The size of the young fish will be determined by where they have been collected and the food and available to eat,” she said.

Movements of weakfish show geographic variations in growth, with their size increasing the farther north they are collected along the Atlantic Coast.

Northern weakfish collected between Cape Cod and Ocean City, Maryland, were largest, while those caught Virginia Beach and Cape Fear were smaller. The size of fish caught between Chesapeake Bay to Virginia Beach were intermediate and were similar to Delaware Bay. Growth of weakfish of southern half of their range may also be limited by food availability or by their DNA makeup, she concluded.

 “Weakfish have been one of the most important components of a mixed-stock commercial fishery on the Atlantic coast since the 1800s. with several periods of high and low landings. Commercial landings peaked in 1980 at about 36 million pounds coast wide and a little over 20 million pounds in North Carolina. Commercial landings remained relatively high through the 1980s and generally declined since then,” said Chris Batsavage, special assistant for councils and the North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries representative on the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission.

In 2020, coastwide and North Carolina commercial weakfish landings were 232,684 pounds and 87,784 pounds, respectively. Batsavage noted that commercial weakfish landings since 2010 had been limited by the commercial trip and bycatch limits of no greater than 100 pounds that are required by the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission’s Weakfish Fishery Management Plan.

“Weakfish have historically been landed in haul seines, pound nets, trawls and gill nets, with gill nets the predominant gear since the 1990s. North Carolina, Virginia and New York account for the majority of the commercial landings. Discarding of weakfish by commercial fishermen is known to occur, and the discard mortality is assumed to be 100%,” Batsavage added.

Recreational weakfish harvest has shown a similar trend as commercial landings with a peak in the early to mid-1980s and a marked decline since the early 2000s. In 2020, the coastwide recreational harvest was 481,418 pounds with 105,729 pounds landed in North Carolina. Since 2010, the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission’s Weakfish Fishery Management Plan required a one-fish bag limit and a minimum size limit of at least 12 inches total length, which has contributed to the low harvest over the last decade or so.

North Carolina, South Carolina and New York account for the majority of the recreational harvest. Virginia hasn’t been among the top states for recreational harvest in recent years.

It is assumed that 10% of weakfish released alive by recreational anglers die. Although the total number of weakfish released follows a similar trend as recreational harvest, the proportion of weakfish released has increased since 2010, Batsavage said. 

A 2019 stock assessment update shows weakfish still showed signs of being depleted as they have been since 2003. The fish stock is considered depleted when it is below the spawning stock biomass, or SSB, threshold of 30% or 13.6 million pounds. In 2017, the SSB was only 4.24 million pounds. While the assessment shows some good signs in the weakfish population recently, with a slight increase in SSB and total abundance, the stock is still well below the self-sustainable threshold.

“The assessment also shows natural mortality, or the rate at which fish die because of natural causes such as starvation, disease, predation, has been going up since the early 2000s. The assessment therefore uses total mortality, which includes fishing mortality and natural mortality, as benchmarks to prevent an increase in fishing pressure during times of high natural mortality and low fishing mortality. Although total mortality has decreased since 2010, it is still too high for the stock to recover,” Batsavage said.

North Carolina gives awards for the catch and keep of a weakfish that is 5 pounds and larger. They also give out awards for the live release of a weakfish measuring 24 inches or longer. A total of 10 weight citations and three release citations were issued for weakfish in 2020, the most recent totals available.

Anglers catch weakfish with natural or artificial baits by a variety of techniques including bottom fishing and jigging. They commonly use sting silvers and spec rigs. The weakfish have soft mouths. Anglers should keep the line tight, yet not pull too hard because the hook could rip through the lip and permanently injure the fish.

Years ago, I was slowly boating out to go scuba diving during the summer when we came upon a large swirling motion of water at the surface — a massive school of Atlantic menhaden being attacked from the underneath by hungry bluefish.

I quickly donned my drysuit and hopped into the water with my video camera. The footage revealed just how viciously the bluefish struck the menhaden from below, and just as quickly they were gone. Only later I found out that you really don’t want to be in the water when bluefish are blitz-feeding like I observed, as they are known to bite their way through a diver’s wetsuit. I was glad I didn’t know this when in the water with both species!

Atlantic menhaden can be found in the estuaries and coastal waters from as far north as Nova Scotia south to the northern portion Florida and are thought to be all from the same stock.

This species is also referred to as pogy or fatback, depending upon where in the country you find it.

Atlantic menhaden are small, blue-black fish with shiny, metallic-like sides and a deeply forked tail. They have an obvious dark spot on the shoulder just behind the gill plate, often followed by two or three mixed, or irregular rows of smaller spots. They spawn in the ocean then enter the estuaries for food. They swim in large schools and provide an important role in marine ecosystems as a forage fish for larger predators.

Biology

“Both adult and juvenile menhaden form large, near-surface schools of fish that are so thick in numbers that they look like an oil slick when viewed from the air,” said Holly White, fisheries biologist with the North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries. “This takes place mainly in nearshore waters and estuaries from early spring right through until early winter. By summertime, the schools of fish will separate by age and size along the coast, with larger and older menhaden found farther north and youngsters further to the south.”

From the fall to early winter, all menhaden, regardless of age or size, move south off of the North Carolina capes to spawn, White said.

The fish become sexually mature as young as a year old, up to 3 years of age. They spawn from New Jersey south to the Carolinas and most spawning occurs between 20 and 30 miles offshore during the winter, according to information White provided.

Their eggs are buoyant and when they hatch, the larvae are carried into estuarine nursery areas by prevailing ocean currents. Juveniles spend most of their first year in estuaries, moving out into the ocean during late fall.

Research indicates that the number of new fish that enter the fishery annually — the year-class strength — is likely determined by environmental factors, including currents, temperature and predation, acting on larvae as they approach and enter inlets and nursery areas, she said.

Atlantic menhaden can live up to 10 years. They grow to about 15 inches in length, on average, and weigh up to a pound.

Menhaden are highly effective filter feeders that feed primarily on microscopic plankton. Water is pushed through specialized gill rakes that are shaped into a basket which allows them to capture and eat plankton.

Menhaden are an important prey species in food webs, providing a link between primary production and higher organisms by consuming plankton and providing forage for species such as striped bass, bluefish and weakfish, to name just a few.

Commercial fishery

The Atlantic menhaden commercial fishery is made up of a reduction fishery, in which the industry “reduces” the whole fish into fishmeal, fish oil and fish solubles, and a bait fishery.

“The reduction fishery first began in New England during the early 1800s and spread south after the Civil War,” said Special Assistant to Councils Chris Batsavage with the North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries.

He said the reduction fishery grew with the advent of purse seines in the mid-1800s and reached peak landings in 1956 at 712,100 metric tons.

“At the time, over 20 menhaden reduction factories ranged from southern Maine to northern Florida. In the 1960s, the Atlantic menhaden stock contracted geographically, and many of the reduction factories north of the Chesapeake Bay closed due to a scarcity of fish,” said Batsavage.

Consequently, reduction landings dropped to 161,000 tons in 1969.

In the 1970s and 1980s, the menhaden population began to expand primarily due to a series of above-average year-classes entering the fishery, and then reduction landings rose to around 300,000-400,000 metric tons.

At that time, adult menhaden were abundant in the northern half of their range in the United States and, because of this, the reduction factories in Canada and New England began rapidly expanding and processing menhaden again by the early to mid-1970s. By 1989, all New England-based shoreside reduction plants had closed, mainly because of regulations put in place to do away with odors, according to the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission.

“During the 1990s, the Atlantic menhaden stock contracted again, largely due to a series of poor to average year-classes. Over the next decade, several reduction plants consolidated or closed, resulting in a significant reduction in fleet size and fishing capacity. By 2006, there was only one remaining reduction plant in operation on the Atlantic coast processing menhaden into fishmeal and oil. This is the Omega Protein plant located in Reedville, Virginia, which is still operational today,” said Batsavage.

In 2019, roughly 150,000 tons were landed for reduction purposes. Commercial landings in 2019, including reduction, bait, bycatch and episodic event landings, were 208,837 tons, or 96% of the total allowable catch.

“This represents a 9% decrease in landings from 2018,” said Batsavage. “However, the trend in total landings for bait purposes has increased in recent years, especially in the New England states.”

Menhaden landings in North Carolina ranged from around 100 million to over 300 million pounds per year from the early 1950s to the mid-1980s, with the highest landings occurring in 1981 at over 309 million pounds.

Landings decreased from the late 1990s to 2004 ranging from just over 40 million pounds to around 110 million pounds per year. 

“The last reduction plant in North Carolina closed in 2005. Since then, menhaden landings in North Carolina have been for bait purposes only and have ranged from around 400,000 to 3.5 million pounds per year,” said Batsavage.

Atlantic menhaden remains a popular baitfish for those targeting spotted seatrout, bluefish, king mackerel, tuna and sharks. Anglers can purchase live menhaden from floating “bait barges” along coastal waterways. Contact a tackle shop for availability and locations.

The name white perch makes you think this is strictly a freshwater fish, but in reality, this species is a semi-anadromous fish, nonscientifically more closely related to striped bass.

A semi-anadromous fish is one that spends an equal amount of time in the ocean, and the freshwater river, stream, lake or pond of its birth to reproduce. Keeping this in mind, the white perch has a unique life history compared to other freshwater perch cousins.

White perch were originally found on the Atlantic coast of North America from the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and Nova Scotia, Canada, south to the Pee Dee River in South Carolina. They are a native species to this large geographical range. Over the past half century or so, this species also has been introduced to landlocked states across the country as an additional good tasting fish to catch, while other native species were in sharp decline and unavailable for local fishers.

In North Carolina they are also known as gray perch, blue-nosed perch, silver perch and sea perch. In local waters, white perch can grow to 19 inches in length, although the average catch size range is from 8 to 10 inches and weigh less than a pound. In North Carolina, no award citations are given for this species.

“The white perch is a comparatively small, silvery fish with a dark, hump-looking back,” said Nathaniel Hancock, white perch biologist with North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries. White perch typically grow to between 7 to 12 inches in length, depending on where the species is on the coast.

“White perch are a silvery, chunky-shaped fish, about three times as long as they are deep, not counting the tail. The back is olive-brown to blackish green in coloration fading to a paler silvery green on the sides and silver-white on the bottom, Hancock said. “The fins have a dusky coloration. A tiny notch separates their two dorsal fins. Young fish, with dark lateral stripes, may resemble striped bass. The stripes on an adult white perch are very faded and for all intents and purposes are nonexistent.”

This fish looks very much like the white bass. There are several subtle ways to tell the two apart. First, the tongue of the white perch has no teeth, while the white bass has visible teeth. The white perch has two dorsal, or top, fins connected by a thin skin-like membrane, while the white bass has no membrane between the two fins. White perch do not have horizontal stripes running the length of its body, while the white bass have broken stripes visible especially on the bottom half of the fish. Finally, white perch have eight or nine rays on the anal fin of the fish, while white bass have 12.

“White perch are social animals, and are found in schools. They are rarely observed as solitary animals,” Hancock explained.

White perch are typically found in relatively shallow water, usually not much deeper than 6 to 12 feet, but may also be found as deep as 60 to 360 feet in the Chesapeake Bay.

“During winter months they hang out in the deeper portions of local bays and creeks, where they turn more lethargic. White perch will eat small fish fry of all species, crabs, shrimp, juvenile squid, and many other invertebrates, as well as on the offspring of other fish. They will strike at pretty much any bait, whether they be natural, or man-made,” Hancock said.

This species lives in estuaries and in coastal waters throughout their range. They can also be found on mud flats in coastal tidal rivers, and in channels in shallow, fresh and brackish waters. Because of this ability to live in both freshwater and saltwater environments, this species is semi-anadromous.

White perch can also migrate upstream to quiet, freshwater streams if not blocked by man-made, or natural barriers. During winter months they seek out deeper channels of water. Landlocked populations seek similar habitat within each watershed in which they are found.

“The white perch is closely related to striped bass, and both share fin structures that are pretty close to one another, with the main exception that white perch do not have the horizontal stripes always clearly evident on a striped bass, and are somewhat less streamlined as compared to its larger cousin. The white perch is generally silver in color, with large scales, a dark lateral line, and two large spiny dorsal fins. I have also observed this species in an almost light bronze coloration,” Hancock said.

White perch will spawn in fresh or brackish water tidal rivers, in lakes and ponds, in shallow water along the shoreline or in the larger tributaries of the water body. Spawning takes place over a two-week period in May or June, when water temperatures reach about 60 degrees. Fish ready to spawn will gather in large groups, releasing eggs and sperm over a variety of bottom habitats.

“White perch are prolific spawners and can become very abundant in larger water bodies. A female is capable of releasing between 20,000 and 300,000 eggs in the spring spawning season, depending upon the size and age of the fish,” Hancock said.

In southern New England, white perch usually spawn in April, May and June. Scientists think that the season starts a few weeks later in the colder Gulf of Maine waters than the warmer North Carolina waters.

Fish that live in salt water will move into fresh or slightly brackish water to spawn. The eggs will sink and stick together in large groups. They may also settle onto solid habitat such as rocks, or ledge. The eggs will hatch in about six days if water temperature is approximately 52 degrees. Newly hatched larvae measure about 2.3 millimeters in length.

White perch may live to up to 17 years, according to the Chesapeake Bay Program website.

In North Carolina, white perch up to about age 13 can be found, Hancock said. Fish eggs will make up most of their diet when they are available, but white perch will also eat zooplankton, fish larvae and small minnows, again depending upon the available of those food choices. The perch will forage in shallow water at night, then move to deeper water during the day. White perch are found in large numbers once water temperatures exceed 75 degrees, Hancock added.

In North Carolina there are no specific conservation or management objectives for white perch. Division of Marine Fisheries Fisheries Management Chief Steve Poland explained that the species is not managed by the South Atlantic Fishery Management Council or Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission, unlike many of the gamefish in North Carolina waters.

Anglers catch white perch by drift fishing with live minnows and casting or trolling small artificial baits, such as jigs and spoons, in the vicinity of surface-feeding schools.

Most white perch fishing occurs in the Albemarle and Pamlico sounds and their tributaries in North Carolina. This species may also be caught in Lake Mattamuskeet and Lake Waccamaw. In the Piedmont, lakes Tillery and Norman, along with Badin Lake, are great places to try and catch this good eating and fighting fish area.

White perch is a popular and excellent tasting gamefish. There is a minimum weight requirement of 1 pound, or 12 inches in overall length. The state record is 2 pounds, 15 ounces, taken from the Falls of the Neuse Reservoir Dec. 16, 2001, by Bob G. Williams.

“There are no size, or daily catch limits of white perch in North Carolina inland waters,” Poland said.

Freshwater turtles sometimes seem invisible, yet these cool critters are found in practically every freshwater body in North Carolina.

Sea turtles seem to get all the glory, but most people are not aware that the state is also home to 17 species of freshwater turtles. For the purposes of this story, we will be investigating the 12 species that live within the Coastal Plain waters of the state.

Snappers

The common snapping turtle is one of the most frequently seen freshwater turtles in North Carolina. This species is found in every county of the state.

“The snapper is North Carolina’s largest freshwater turtle. Its large head, long tail and wary nature make identification easy,” said Jeffrey Hall, biologist with both the Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation and the North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission. Hall is the state herpetologist, who specializes in the study of reptiles and amphibians.

“Snappers are so named because they defend themselves by snapping and biting when handled or disturbed. They are top-level predators in many food chains and are important components in most aquatic ecosystems,” Hall continued.

He explained that snapping turtles have large heads with powerful jaws and necks.

“The top shell, or carapace, has a jagged posterior edge and three longitudinal keels, which are most prominent in young specimens. The plastron, or bottom shell is small and cross-shaped. The tail, adorned above with large, saw-toothed scales, is much longer than that of any other North Carolina turtle,” Hall said, adding that the shell offers limited protection to the head and limbs, so these turtles rely largely on their strong jaws for defense.

“The skin and shell are usually brownish above and whitish or yellowish below. The skin is thick, with numerous tubercles, and the powerful limbs have large claws. The carapace is often encrusted with algae. Male snappers are on the average larger than females,” he said.

In North Carolina, this species averages between 8 to 14 inches in length. The record is 19.3 inches long. They weigh between 10 to 35 pounds. Fattened captive specimens have exceeded 80 pounds. The largest North Carolina specimen on record weighed 64 pounds. Snappers will feed on invertebrates, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals, carrion, and a wide variety of plant material.

“Mating usually takes place in spring and normally occurs in water, with the pair often snapping savagely at one another. In late spring, the female deposits about 25 spherical, white, leathery-shelled eggs in a hole excavated with her hind feet, sometimes far from water. The nest is then covered and abandoned, and the eggs hatch in two to three months. More than one clutch may be laid during a season. Hatchlings are typically 3⁄4 to 1 1⁄4 inch in carapace length. The young are dark brown with prominent keels and ridges on carapace and a blackish plastron,” said Hall.

Snapping turtles can live 40 years and possibly much longer.

Eastern painted turtle

The eastern painted turtle is a small aquatic turtle with bright markings. Adults have a smooth shell of between about 4 to 7 inches in length. The top part of the shell is pretty flat when compared to the land-based box turtle. It has a relatively flat upper shell with red and yellow markings on a black or greenish-brown background, according to the N.C. Wildlife Resources Commission.

The eastern painted turtle has obvious pale seams between layers of shell called scutes, especially along outside edge margins. These are usually fairly straight lines across the shell that can be seen on turtles that are basking on rocks, or fallen tree branches near water. The joint between the dome of the shell and bottom of the animal does not have any hinges like the box turtle and is usually plain yellow or has a smeared look of reddish, or reddish-brown coloration.

Although records are lacking from certain sections of the upper Piedmont and the mountains, eastern painted turtles were most likely found in most of the state except on the Outer Banks, in the southern coastal plain and at high mountainous altitudes.

“Eastern painted turtles are found in lakes, ponds, freshwater marshes and other bodies of still or slow-moving water with soft bottoms and often plentiful vegetation, which may include slow-moving brooks and streams. They are some of the most commonly observed of the native basking turtles in the state,” Hall said.

“Large numbers of this species can often be seen and photographed catching some rays on partially submerged logs and similar objects, particularly in the spring and during the morning and afternoon in the summer. On occasion, as with many species in the family of basking turtles, you may even see a painted turtle sunning themselves on warm, sunny days in the middle of winter too,” he added.

Box turtles

The eastern box turtle is probably the easiest to identify, with its highly domed, brown top portion of its shell, which is randomly marked with orange or yellow in adults and older juveniles.

“Its bottom shell, is tan to dark brown, yellow, black, or multicolored — the color is highly variable on this species and is hinged so that the turtle, when disturbed, can pull in its head, limbs and tail and tightly close the shell for protection. The box turtle is the only North Carolina species that can completely enclose itself inside its shell. This species’ upper jaw looks like a beak of a bird,” Hall said.

The box turtle is found statewide and is North Carolina’s official state reptile.

“Eastern box turtles are most common in and around wooded areas, especially moist environments, but they also can be found in meadows, pastures, and other open, grassy habitats,” he said.

Box turtles are almost exclusively diurnal, or active during daylight hours. When they are encountered at night, which is not often, it is usually a female nesting, or returning late from nesting.

“During the spring and early fall, box turtles seem to be the most active right after rain showers,” Hall said.

Sliders

The yellow-bellied slider is a medium-sized to large turtle with an obvious yellow blotch just behind the eye. They have vertical yellow stripes on their rumps with a narrow yellow stripes on their lower forelegs. The top shell is olive-to-black in adults, and paler and more brightly marked in juveniles of this species. The bottom shell is usually yellow, but in some cases, it is colored with a reddish-brown or brown hue from the waters where the animals are living.

“This is actually a much more common feature of sliders in the Piedmont, as the more basic waters allow iron uptake in the scutes of the shell. Coastal waters are usually more acidic and don’t allow for the uptake of that iron and so they are more often colored bright yellow. These features help to identify this species from the other freshwater turtles in the coastal plain,” Hall said.

These common turtles are typically spotted throughout most of eastern North Carolina and in several places along the Outer Banks. They are also common in the eastern Piedmont area. Sightings are fewer closer to the western Piedmont and are pretty scattered in the western range limit of the species, which is unknown.

“Yellow-bellied sliders can be found in canals, ponds, lakes and other bodies of quiet or slow-moving water that provide suitable habitat. Turtles are usually the most common in places that have habitat containing soft bottoms and lots of aquatic vegetation. Sliders like to bask like their painted turtle cousins, and you may observe animals catching some rays on floating logs or other debris,” Hall said. “This turtle is very conscious of your being in their backyard and will most likely slide into and under the water with the slightest disturbance, so it is very important that you move slowly and cautiously, watching your footing, and not snap any branches that might spook the turtle. The yellowbelly slider may, on occasion, be found on land, typically when the animal is moving between habitats or during an egg-laying mission by the female, usually in June, depending upon weather temperatures.”

River cooters

The eastern river cooter is a large freshwater turtle that averages between 9 to 12 inches in length. It has an olive or brown-colored top shell that has a pattern comprised of a series of circles. This top shell may look like it is flared on the back. The color of its top shell, along with circle markings help ID this species. River cooters also have more than 11 thin, yellow stripes around the head. These markings will typically go away as they age, according to the commission.

The bottom shell is yellow with a dark pattern that follows the turtle’s seams. The darker pattern usually fades as the turtles grow older. The upper jaw is notched in front and pointed on each side. This species is most easily confused with the yellow-bellied slider. The yellow vertical bar that is present on the slider’s head is absent on the head of the cooter. The cooter is also generally slightly larger and has a smoother ridge on the shell. The slider has a more prominently keeled ridge down the middle of the shell.

“River cooters are commonly found across the coastal plain and Piedmont. Most river cooters that have been documented were caught using basking traps in impoundments along rivers and large streams. A basking trap is a floating dock-like structure with ramps to make coming out of the water easy for the turtles and anchored into a desired position in the water. Adult cooters have also been observed hauled-out and basking on exposed rocks in rivers, as well as seen basking on logs. Females can be observed moving around on dry land looking for a place to lay their eggs during late spring of each year, but this species usually does not venture that far away from the protection of nearby waters,” Hall said.

The Florida cooter, once thought to be distinct from the eastern river cooter, is now considered to be the same species, and both are now collectively referred to as the eastern river cooter.

Spotted turtles

The spotted turtle has a black top shell, speckled with round, yellow spots and a yellowish to pinkish bottom shell with large brown to black patches. This species seldom grows larger than 4.5 inches in length, and has a record length of only 5.4 inches. This is one of the smallest aquatic turtles in the state. This species is easy to distinguish from all other turtles who call North Carolina home. If you find a small turtle with prominent yellow spots all over its top shell, you have positively identified a spotted turtle.

“Spotted turtles can be found throughout most of eastern North Carolina and are common regionally in some parts of the coast,” Hall explained.

“Spotted turtles can be observed living in canals, drainage ditches, marshes, wet pastures, floodplains and woodland pools, flooded borrow pits and small streams, especially where the water is clean and shallow and the bottom is soft,” he said. “Usually, this species is aquatic, but spotted turtles can also be observed hanging out either by themselves or in small numbers with other species of basking turtles. When these animals are frightened, they try to dig down into the mud or escape under logs. They are most active in the spring and are difficult to find in the summer.”

Chicken turtles

The eastern chicken turtle is a small to medium-sized turtle, and gets its name from its long neck, which when extended is just about as long as the top shell of the animal. The smooth, pear-shaped shell is olive to dark brown.

Eastern chicken turtles also have a striped pants pattern on the rear legs and a broad yellow stripe on the forelegs that help you tell this animal apart from all other aquatic turtles of the state. This species, which is easy to identify if you are lucky enough to find one in the wild, is listed as a species of special concern under the state Endangered Species Program.

“Eastern chicken turtles are now found in greatly reduced numbers. They were once common in some areas of the coastal plain, but they now are difficult to find in many historical locations. Eastern chicken turtles live in cypress ponds, marshes, borrow pits, canals and similar bodies of still or sluggish water, although their diets are highly tied to ponds that are ephemeral in nature,” Hall said.

In the southeastern coastal plain, these may be found in ponds surrounded by sandhills and pine flatwoods.

Striped mud turtles

“Striped mud turtles often enjoy these same types of ponds, and I have also found cooters, sliders, snappers, spotted, and eastern mud turtles all in ponds that had chicken turtles in them. This species usually stays in the water, but has also been found on roads or walking in wooded areas,” Hall said.

Diamondback terrapins

The diamondback terrapin has obvious lined markings on its top shell and this species is distinct from all other aquatic turtles in North Carolina.

The color pattern of this animal can vary widely. The top shell can be greenish, gray, brown or blackish, sometimes with circular darker markings. Dark markings are usually the most obvious to observe on the head and neck. The diamondback terrapin’s eyes are black and large. Its hind feet are webbed.

Related: The weary diamondback terrapin’s latest foe: phragmites

The diamondback terrapin is also a species of special concern in North Carolina.

“Diamondback terrapins are found on most of the Outer Banks, on many smaller islands and along a narrow strip of the coastal mainland from Virginia to South Carolina. They are common in a few places where damage to their habitats has been minimal, but populations in many areas have been and continue to be depleted by extensive coastal development and the alteration of marshes. Shallow set crab pots frequently capture and kill these turtles,” Hall said.

“Diamondback terrapins inhabit coastal marshes, bays, lagoons, creeks, mud flats and similar environments, characterized by salt or brackish waters,” Hall continued.

These turtles have been observed in tidal creeks and other bodies of water in the salt marshes on Ocracoke Island, and they have been found in similar habitats elsewhere on the Outer Banks. “They are frequent baskers, often found sunbathing on mud flats and in other places near the water. They also often burrow in the mud, particularly during low tides and at night,” he said.

Red-bellied cooters

The northern red-bellied cooter is a large freshwater turtle, typically between 10 and 15.75 inches in length. The top shell is brown to black, usually with vertical yellow, orange or pinkish figures. The scutes, or layers of growing shell, are usually flattened or slightly concave.

“As its name implies, the redbelly turtle has a bottom coloration that is yellowish-orange to reddish, with or without dark markings, and due to this coloration, is easy to identify in the wild. Its head, neck, limbs and tail are usually black with yellow or greenish-yellow stripes,” said Hall.

These turtles are found most often in the northeastern coastal plain at least as far south as the area where the Pamlico River meets the Pamlico Sound. They have been found also in Nags Head Woods in Dare County. Canals, streams, lakes and other bodies of still or sluggish water are characteristic habitats of redbelly turtles, according to the Wildlife Resources Commission. Little is known about the habits of this turtle. Efforts to collect them in typical hoop-style turtle traps are usually unsuccessful, due to the more herbivorous diet of all cooters.

Mud turtles

Eastern mud turtles are found across the coastal plain and in parts of the Piedmont.

“This is a small turtle with a smooth, unmarked top shell, which ranges in coloration from olive to dark brown. The bottom shell is double-hinged and can be yellow or brown. Adults range from 3 to 5 inches in top shell length,” Hall said, adding that eastern mud turtles are semi-aquatic.

They are not strong swimmers and usually crawl along the bottom. They are more terrestrial than their relatives, the musk turtles, and hibernate in forests buried an inch or two below the surface. The eastern mud turtles prefer shallow and sluggish bodies of water. They are able to tolerate brackish water and are sometimes encountered in salt marshes, Hall said.

“Eastern mud turtles are omnivorous. They are known to feed on crustaceans including crayfish, mollusks, aquatic insects, and seeds. Mud turtles lay between two and five eggs during June or July. The eggs of this species are hard shelled and do not absorb water like most turtle eggs. The young hatch in August or September,” Hall explained. “Hatchling mud turtles are often mistaken for snapping turtles. An easy way to tell the two apart is a mud turtle has a larger, hinged bottom shell and snapping turtle hatchlings have a very small bottom shell and a long tail.”

The striped mud turtle is a small turtle that, in most of its range, has three light stripes down the length of its shell but in North Carolina, these stripes are usually absent.

“They can be difficult to distinguish from eastern mud turtles, but they typically have light stripes from their eyes to the tips of their noses. The top shell, is smooth, domed and usually dark brown in coloration. Males can be distinguished from females by their longer, thicker tails. Adults have a shell length between 3 and 4 inches,” Hall said.

The striped mud turtle has a similar diet to the eastern mud turtle.

“This is an omnivorous species which feeds primarily on aquatic invertebrates. Striped mud turtles are semi-aquatic, but spend large parts of the year buried beneath soil and ground litter. They rarely bask out of the water. Their habitat is varied and includes swamps, drainage canals, ponds, wetlands, streams and temporary pools. They are generally not found in moving water,” Hall said. Females lay around four eggs during early summer but little is known about the reproductive biology of this species in North Carolina.

Spiny softshell turtles

The spiny softshell turtle is a large, flattened turtle with skin covering both the top and bottom shell.

“This skin usually has a sandpaper-like texture and is tough and leathery. Coloration ranges from olive-gray to yellowish-brown with spots or blotches on the carapace. Young individuals often have well-defined round spots on their shell. They have long necks and a long, thin nose, which they can use like a snorkel to breathe. Adults range from 7 to 21 inches in females, and 5 to 9 inches in males,” Hall said.

Spiny softshells are carnivorous with their preferred prey being fish, crayfish and other aquatic invertebrates.

“These turtles are strong swimmers and stay in the water nearly all the time, but when on land, they can move quickly. Softshells often bask on sandbars or logs or lie buried in sand in shallow water, using their long necks to reach the surface to breathe. Although they will sometimes leave the water to bask, they are very wary and return to the water at the slightest provocation,” he said.

Two subspecies are found in North Carolina. The eastern spiny softshell are in the extreme western mountains, while the Gulf Coast spiny softshell is found in the southern part of the state, ranging north along the major river systems. Both subspecies prefer large streams and rivers with sand or mud bars, but can also be found in large reservoirs, according to the NC Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation, or NCPARC.

Spiny softshells generally lay clutches of 12 to 18 round, brittle eggs in the early summer. As with many North Carolina turtles, it is thought that females may lay multiple clutches per season. Nests are generally located close to water, often on sand or gravel bars or in people’s yards. Young emerge about 80 days later, and are usually 1 to 1.5 inches in diameter.

Stinkpots

The common musk turtle, also known as the stinkpot, has a small bottom shell, with a single hinge that provides little to no protection for their legs, distinguishing them from the similar mud turtles, which have two hinges on the bottom shell.

“Musk turtles have two light stripes on their heads, distinguishing them from stripe-necked musk turtles and young snapping turtles. The top shell, is often smooth and has a ridge down the center. It is usually black in color and sometimes covered with spots or streaks. Males can be distinguished from females by their thick tails, which are sharp and horny. Female tails are much smaller and lack the sharp point. This species ranges from 2 to 4.5 inches in carapace length,” Hall said.

Common musk turtles are omnivorous and feed on small aquatic and semi-aquatic animals, aquatic plants, and carrion.

“This species is mostly aquatic and usually not found far from water. They are most often seen walking or swimming along the bottom in shallow water. They are active during both day and night. Musk turtles have been found basking more than 7 feet above the water on tree limbs. This species will frequently bite when first captured and will release a smelly musk, which gives the species its name,” he said.

This species is abundant in many waterways, but prefer still or slow-moving bodies of water with soft bottoms. Unlike mud turtles, this species is intolerant of brackish water and like most species of freshwater turtles in North Carolina, the stinkpot spends the winter buried in the mud. Female musk turtles lay between two and eight eggs in late spring and summer, usually in rotten logs or piles of dead vegetation, according to NCPARC.

Now, get outside

So now that you know what to look for, go for a walk near your rivers, streams, ponds, lakes and reservoirs. Walk slowly and try not to make any noise and keep a watchful eye near the shoreline where you are walking.

Check out hanging tree branches, fallen logs, or rocks poking through the surface of the water. You never know what you may stumble across during your journey into nature.

Don’t forget to bring a pair of binoculars, a camera and small notebook if you want to keep track of your sightings. Most importantly – have fun!

The sea robin is one weird-looking fish. They have some of the largest pectoral fins of any bottom dweller I have ever seen in the Atlantic. When fully extended, they look like a single-engine Cessna’s wing, except underwater and on the bottom. These fish also have adapted pectoral fin rays just below their gills that have evolved over time into crab-like feelers that this species uses to probe for food on the sea floor.

“In North Carolina, there are 16 documented species of sea robin, counting those in deep water, but only four are typically seen in the estuaries and nearshore waters. The sea robins are related to other large-finned fishes in the scorpionfish and gurnard families,” said Dr. Steve W. Ross, a research professor at the University of North Carolina Wilmington.

Based on multiple years of sampling the seafloor near the coast, the most common species are leopard sea robin and northern sea robin.

“Those two species are fairly common on muddy/sandy nearshore and estuarine bottoms in North Carolina. Also common in the same areas are striped sea robin and bighead sea robin. We also saw blackwing sea robins on rare occasions. In my experience, they seem to be rare in shallow estuarine water, but they do occur in deeper areas of the estuary,” said James W. Morley, assistant professor, Department of Biology, Coastal Studies Institute, East Carolina University.

“I’ve had them in aquaria before. They are fun to watch, as they taste and search for food with their adapted pectoral fin rays. They move them around like fingers in the sediment. I also would use them for dissections in an ichthyology class. They are one of a couple groups of fishes that have a specialized muscle attached to their gas bladder to make noise,” he said.

All sea robins are capable of making a noticeable croaking noise when taken out of the water.

The northern sea robin is also known as the common sea robin. They are found from Nova Scotia south to Florida and into the Gulf of Mexico. Its coloration is a mix of red, gray and brown, with dark blotches along its back. The bottom of the fish is a dirty white or pale yellow. This species usually grows to a length of between 12 and 16 inches.

They prefer a smooth, hard-packed bottom of an open bay. In North Carolina they are usually caught between May and October.

“They are present in the coastal ocean all year long, but somewhat less abundant during the winter months. This is similar to leopard sea robins,” said Morley.

It is easy to identify the northern sea robin from the other three species outlined above. This fish has a large, bulbous, spiny head and body that tapers down to the tail. It has a rounded, fanlike pectoral fin that is quite large and extends horizontally like an airplane wing. The three lower rays of the northern sea robin’s pectoral fins are long, crab-like leg feelers used to walk along the bottom and to search for and find food on the bottom. The front portion of the head of the northern sea robin, as well as most other sea robins, has bony plates, which they use as a shovel to dig up different types invertebrates from the bottom to eat. There is a small spine in its nose.

The northern sea robin’s eyes are pretty with a peacock blue coloration, like those of a cute puppy. These features help identify this species from a similar looking fish, the sculpin, which is not found in North Carolina waters, but are found farther north along the East Coast.

Northern sea robins are usually found swimming in areas of hard to smooth bottom types, but are not typically seen by scuba divers on rocks or in the mud. These fish constantly swim along the bottom in search of food. When threatened, they will bury themselves in the sand, showing only their eyes and the top of their heads.

The northern sea robin will eat a wide variety of invertebrates, including squid, crabs, shrimp, amphipods, segmented worms and mollusks. It has also been known to take a bite from any bait, giving the impression they are not picky eaters. Since they are well-known bait thieves, fishers often consider this species a nuisance. Still, some find these bottom-dwellers good to eat and harvest them mainly by hook and line.

The striped sea robin is found in the western Atlantic from Nova Scotia south to Florida, however, it is a rare find north of Cape Cod. I have never seen, or photographed this species anywhere north of the Cape Cod Canal. This species is easy to tell apart from the northern sea robin because of their horizontal black stripes that run the length of the body from just behind the gill plate back to the tail. Other than the differences in coloration and pattern along their bodies, they look quite similar in size and in shape to the northern sea robin.

In North Carolina, this species is usually found on sandy bottoms in estuaries and nearshore waters down to 590-foot depths. Like many species that are found along the East Coast, the striped sea robin spawns in late spring through summer and migrates into deeper waters and southward during the winter months. Their large fan-like pectoral fins are used to soar over the bottom and churn-up sediment to find prey.

This species reaches maturity at 2 to 3 years old.

Sea robins are known for their sound-producing abilities. A variety of sounds have been documented including clucks, growls and clicks. Little is known about why these fish make such noises. The strange sound has been observed more commonly during the spawning season and is believed to be related to the spawning act. Sea robins have large swim bladders that they vibrate using a combination of muscles and fiber-like attachments.

The leopard sea robin’s body is long and slim. Its head is large in proportion to the rest of its body and has a bony ridge and spines like its close relatives. Its eyes are narrowly spaced. You can distinguish this fish from both the northern and striped sea robin by the darker, leopard-like spots all over its body. This species has brown or orangish spots on lighter body, and its underside is white, with occasional softened bands on both sides. The dorsal, tail and pectoral fins all have brown to orange spots, with the anal fin having white on the ends, with the body having a translucent, darker stripe in-between. The pectoral fin is large and wing like, with the bottom three rays adapted into the feelers mentioned above. The first dorsal fin has two black spots, one between the first and second spines, the other between the fourth and fifth spines. Its throat has no visible scales.

The leopard sea robin tends to be more slender than other sea robins and is the only one with two dark spots on its first dorsal fin. Other sea robins either have one spot or none at all. This species will grow to lengths of about 10 inches and is one of the smaller sea robins seen in North Carolina waters.

Unlike the northern, or striped sea robin, the leopard sea robin prefers to live in bays in shallow waters.

The bighead sea robin also has an elongated body with a large head in proportion to the rest of its body. Bighead sea robins have a large head with a bony ridge and spines, however, the distance between the eyes is greater than the other species discussed here. Their coloration is dark with greenish to gray mottled coloring on their back and some body markings with black or dark and light spots.

The bighead sea robin has a black bar below the soft dorsal fin and a whitish underside. The first dorsal fin has a black spot, the large pectoral fins is winglike, with the lower three rays used like fingers to search for food like its cousins. The pectoral fin is dark with lighter bands, no spots, sometimes with yellow edges, white edge on underside of pectoral fin.

Bighead sea robins also prefer gulf and bay habitats. They grow to a maximum size of about 14 inches in length.

“There are an additional 12 members of the sea robin family that occur in estuarine to offshore waters of North Carolina, but several of these  are usually found out on the continental shelf and slope and typically are not caught by regional fishers. Four of these in the genus Peristedion are often split out into a separate family (the armored sea robins) by ichthyologists, and they also only occur in very deep waters. Although sea robins may be encountered around natural hard bottoms and artificial reefs, they are usually restricted to sandy or muddy bottoms where they are uniquely adapted to that habitat,” said Ross.

Sea robins are “quite beautiful,” Ross noted, and they often display a wide range of colors, with many of the deep-water species being almost entirely red.

“I have kept them in aquaria where they are fascinating to watch, especially when they explode from hiding in the sand to grab food. They are an important component of marine and estuarine ecosystems,” Ross said.

Sea robins are not managed by the state or federal governments, and their populations or fishery landings data are not monitored.

“Sea robins are not traditionally harvested. Abundance data on sea robins is recorded by ongoing state surveys of estuarine fish communities,” said Morley.

The Atlantic bluefin tuna season ranks high enough up on the fishing world calendar that the fish even has two of its own television shows.

This species is one of the largest open ocean migratory species of finfish found in the northwest Atlantic. Many fish are caught weighing well over 1,000 pounds and measuring 8 feet or more in length.

I have witnessed these huge animals being pulled off of a fishing boat and they are an awesome sight.

It is mainly left to the hardiest of fishers to pursue bluefin tuna. The expenses alone put it out of reach for the casual weekend fisher. For me, I visit the local supermarket to enjoy their labors from a can.

In North Carolina, the Atlantic bluefin tuna can be found year-round at varying degrees of availability, but are usually the most plentiful from January through March and into April off the Outer Banks, and November through December, with fish numbers increasing in October.

“North Carolina being situated so close to the Gulf Stream pretty much means that fishing for large Atlantic bluefin tuna will leave local waters that are accessible from shore day trips in the late spring and do not return in meaningful numbers until late fall,” Steve Poland, fisheries management section chief with the state Division of Marine Fisheries and vice chair of the South Atlantic Fisheries Management Council, told Coastal Review.

“From Cape Lookout and points south, these fish are usually inshore of the Gulf Stream and can be caught within sight of the beach, especially near Cape Lookout. Manteo is 45 miles offshore, while the Oregon Inlet is about 35 miles. Steaming out of Masonboro Inlet will take you twice as long to reach potential tuna fishing grounds, at approximately 60-70 miles offshore,” he said.

When you think about tuna fishing in North Carolina, Hatteras is one name that jumps to the front of the line because of the fame nationally syndicated tuna fishing shows have extended to that region. It’s also the closest land mass to the Gulf Stream, making it logistically easier for charter operators to reach those waters.

“While the common way of bluefin tuna fishing involves heavy tackle, you will find experienced anglers using light tackle to great success as well. Jigging and popping for bluefins is an extremely exciting experience, but one that’s best left to people with a bit of experience dealing with tuna. A more conventional way of fishing involves trolling with (about) 80- to 130-pound tackle. The state record for bluefin tuna is 805 pounds, but you’re most likely to encounter those in the 150- to 600-pound range,” Poland said.

Bluefin tuna are found in the western Atlantic Ocean from Newfoundland, Canada, south to the Gulf of Mexico.

This fish has a large, torpedo-shaped body that is pretty much circular in shape around the body. Atlantic bluefin tuna are the largest species of tuna on the planet, and can grow up to 13 feet in length, and weigh upwards of 2,000 pounds.

When you see a tuna measuring more than 8 feet long, you have most likely seen a bluefin. This species is dark blue to black on the back and white on the lower sides and tummy. Bluefin tuna have lateral lines that have no color, and rows of colorless spots on their lower sides. The second top, or dorsal fin, usually has a reddish-brown color, and they have proportionally short pectoral fins. These body features, along with their sheer size, is how you tell the bluefin apart from other tuna cousins found in the Atlantic.

Poland explained that Atlantic bluefin tuna tend to grow at a slower rate than other tuna in the ocean.

“They live for a long time of up to 20 years or more and typically do not spawn until they are about 8 years of age. Spawning season runs from mid-April to June, primarily in the Gulf of Mexico. Females can produce up to 10 million eggs a year, depending on the size and age of the fish,” he said. “The eggs are broadcast and fertilized in the middle of the water column and hatch in about 48 hours, depending upon water temperatures.”

Bluefin tuna are not considered to be a top, or apex predator, as one would think. They are secondary consumers because they eat large amounts of schooling prey. They are the true king of finfish in the sea. Young tuna will eat crustaceans, squid and fish, with adult fish mainly feeding upon baitfish such as herring, bluefish and mackerel. Sharks, marine mammals including pilot and killer whales and other species of large fish, will feed on bluefin tuna. Bluefish and seabirds also look at the bluefin as a favorite snack.

This species is managed under the 2006 Consolidated Atlantic Highly Migratory Species Fishery Management Plan amendments. Management measures include that commercial and recreational fishers are required to have a permit to harvest bluefin tuna, and report all landings when fish are brought to shore. There is also an annual quota as well as sub-quotas. In addition, there are gear restrictions, time and area closures, and minimum size limits of bluefin tuna.

According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries website, federal management for Atlantic tuna applies to state waters as well, except in Maine, Connecticut and Mississippi. NOAA Fisheries periodically reviews these states’ regulations to make sure they’re consistent with federal regulations. These regulations do not allow targeted fishing of bluefin tuna in the Gulf of Mexico, an important spawning area for the species.

Poland said that effective conservation and management of highly migratory species like bluefin tuna require international cooperation as well as strong domestic management.

“NOAA Fisheries, through the Atlantic Highly Migratory Species Management Division, manages the Atlantic bluefin tuna fishery in the United States, and sets regulations for the U.S. fishery based on conservation and management recommendations from the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT), consistent with applicable U.S. laws managed under the 2006 Consolidated Atlantic Highly Migratory Species Fishery Management Plan and amendments,” Poland reported.

NOAA Fisheries published several recent regulations that are expected to reduce and improve accounting for bluefin tuna dead discards, including gear-restricted areas and individual transferable quotas in the pelagic longline fishery, modified quota category allocations, and enhanced monitoring and reporting.

In 2000, the United States established the Dolphin-Safe Tuna Tracking and Verification Program to monitor the domestic production and importation of all frozen and processed tuna products nationwide, and to make sure any associated dolphin-safe claims are valid.

ICCAT implemented harvest quotas for the western Atlantic bluefin tuna stock back in 1982. Since then, catch has been relatively stable. U.S. catch makes up about half of the total western Atlantic bluefin tuna catch and less than 10% of Atlantic-wide bluefin tuna catch, including those caught in the Mediterranean Sea.

Poland said that U.S. fishermen can harvest bluefin tuna with hand gear, including rod and reel, handline and harpoon. Landings from purse seines are minimal, so the Highly Migratory Species Fishery Management Plan is currently considering removing this quota category.

“Although fishermen are not allowed to use pelagic longline gear in the United States to target bluefin tuna directly, regulations allow them to retain a limited number of bluefin tuna caught incidentally while fishing for other species such as swordfish and yellowfin tuna,” Poland said. “Fishermen generally target schools of bluefin tuna, and their fishing gear is fairly selective and allows for the live release of any unintentionally caught species. Fishing gear used to catch bluefin tuna rarely contacts the ocean floor and therefore has minimal impact on habitat.”

NOAA Fisheries requires U.S. commercial fishermen who fish for yellowfin tuna, swordfish and other species with pelagic longlines in the Gulf of Mexico to use weak hooks, a type of hook designed to reduce the accidental catch and bycatch of Atlantic bluefin tuna. The weak hook regulations are specific to longliners. Fishing for bluefin tuna in two known hotspots — Cape Hatteras and the Gulf of Mexico are tightly controlled with regulations.

In 2019, commercial landings of Atlantic bluefin tuna totaled 2.4 million pounds and were valued at more than $9.6 million, according to NOAA Fisheries’ commercial fishing landings database. These figures may not match other agency sources of data due to confidential information.

According to the agency’s website, ex-vessel prices, or the amount fishers receive directly for their catch, depend on a number of factors, including the quality of the fish, for example, freshness, fat content, method of storage, the weight of the fish, the supply of fish, and consumer demand. Exports vary from year to year. The majority of exported U.S. Atlantic bluefin tuna catch is sent to sushi markets in Japan. Exports of Atlantic bluefin tuna generally depend on the amount of commercial landings and Japanese yen/U.S. dollar exchange rates.

Bluefin tuna may not be sold under the guidelines of the U.S. recreational fishery for Atlantic bluefin tuna. Bluefin tuna must be larger than 27 inches to be kept. Depending on the recreational fishery, private vessels and charter vessels, limits on the amount and size of fish that fishermen can keep per fishing trip will vary. For the latest information on current retention limits, visit the NOAA Fisheries HMS Permit Shop.

All released bluefin tuna must be let go without removing the fish from the water and in a way that will give the fish the best chances of survival. Recreational fishing for highly migratory species such as bluefin tuna provides significant economic benefits to coastal communities through individual angler fishing related costs, recreational charters, tournaments, and the shoreside businesses that support those fisheries.

For me, the best way to enjoy fishing for the Atlantic bluefin tuna, is tuning into my local cable channel and watching it from the comfort and safety of my home – while eating tuna fish sandwiches, or course.

The spotted seatrout’s name gets me a bit confused. One of the common nicknames for this species is “speckled trout.”

To me, the term “speckled trout” is another name for the eastern brook trout, which is found in the freshwater reaches of the mountainous region of North Carolina.

Though these two share a nickname, it is very easy to tell the two species apart from one another.

First, if you are fishing in the ocean, or brackish waters of North Carolina, you’ll definitely hook a spotted seatrout, commonly referred to as speckled trout, but not an eastern brook trout.

While there are sea-run populations of eastern brook trout along the U.S. Atlantic coast, North Carolina is not one of the states that are home to that variant of the freshwater brook trout. Brook trout are found on the western edge of North Carolina in and around the Appalachian Mountains, and the cold water streams that are found in that region.

Eastern brook trout always have white markings on the front edge of their fins, while speckled trout do not have any white markings. Though both fish have spots along the sides of their bodies, speckled trout also lack wavy vermiculation’s on their back which are a species indicator of the eastern brook trout.

Tracey Bauer, fisheries biologist with the state Division of Marine Fisheries, told Coastal Review that spotted seatrout, or speckled trout, can be found from Massachusetts on the U.S. Atlantic Coast, to southern Florida and the Bahamas, and continue through the Gulf of Mexico to the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico.

“They inhabit shallow coastal and estuarine waters throughout their range and are considered a species that is tolerant of a wide variety of salinities, from the ocean to brackish waters,” Bauer said.

In North Carolina, the state record for spotted seatrout was 12.3 pounds and landed in 1961. Spotted seatrout will live to be an average of 9 years old in North Carolina for both male and female fish.

Bauer explained that spotted seatrout in North Carolina are mature by the time they are about a year old, with an average length of 7.9 inches for males and 9.9 inches for females.

“All males are mature by the time they reach 12 inches and females at 15 inches in length. Spawning in North Carolina usually takes place from April through October with a peak in spawning activity typically during the month of May. Spawning takes place shortly after sunset and a single fish is capable of spawning multiple times throughout the season, making them a batch spawner,” Bauer said.

In Florida, it has been observed that during peak spawning, spotted seatrout older than 3 years old might spawn every two days while younger fish can spawn as often as every four days.

Estimates for the number of eggs a female from the southeast and Gulf coasts can produce in a year can vary from 3 million to 20 million. “Typically, with most trout, the number of eggs she can release really comes down to the size of the female, how old she is, and where she lives,” she said.

Spotted seatrout are targeted by recreational and commercial fishermen throughout their range, Bauer continued. In North Carolina, commercial fishermen land spotted seatrout using many different gears, including runaround gill nets, long haul seines, beach seines, but estuarine gill nets are the most common.

“Traditionally, the species has mostly been harvested as bycatch in other fisheries targeting Atlantic croaker, spot, striped mullet, or southern flounder, but a fishery targeting spotted seatrout takes place in the fall and winter months when spotted seatrout are plentiful. Spotted seatrout are harvested throughout the year with two peaks in landings: October through February and April through May. Total commercial landings fluctuate from year to year, and in the past 10 years have ranged from a low of 75,000 pounds in 2011 to a high of 568,764 pounds in 2020,” Bauer said.

Bauer is both the fisheries biologist for this species and the lead management person for spotted seatrout in North Carolina waters.

In addition to being one of the most targeted recreational fish species in the state, it’s also the top-ranked targeted species in the entire South Atlantic region of the United States. The recreational harvest of spotted seatrout averages more than seven times the amount of commercial harvest annually.

“Fishermen usually target spotted seatrout with hook and line gear using a variety of natural and artificial baits. Additionally, some spotted seatrout are landed by Recreational Commercial Gear License holders using gill nets. Fishing effort occurs all year in the recreational fishery with the majority of the landings from September through December when the fish have moved into coastal and inland creeks and rivers,” Bauer said.

Recreational fishermen in North Carolina harvest, on average, 1.1 million spotted seatrout or over 1.9 million pounds a year, second only to Florida. “Releases of spotted seatrout most years are at least double the number of fish kept,” Bauer reported.

The North Carolina Marine Fisheries Commission currently manages the spotted seatrout fishery under the state Spotted Seatrout Fishery Management Plan, adopted in 2012, and Supplement A to the Spotted Seatrout Fishery Management Plan, adopted in 2014.

Bauer said that the management plan measurements include a 14-inch total length minimum size limit for commercial and recreational fishermen, a four fish per person per day bag limit for recreational fishermen, and a 75-fish trip limit for commercial fishermen.

“The objectives of the fishery management plan and the supplement are to reduce fishing mortality to a level that maintains a spawning stock that is 20% of the unfished stock to increase the likelihood of the stock replenishing itself after years of high mortality. This is a conservative approach, which should provide a greater cushion for the population and lead to a quicker recovery in case a natural mortality event, such as a cold stun, causes depletion of the stock,” Said Bauer.

Spotted seatrout is also covered under the North Carolina Interjurisdictional Fishery Management Plan, which ensures that the state is complying with all federal and council fishery management plans.

“The Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission manages spotted seatrout as an interjurisdictional species and requires that the member states adopt regulations that meet its management measures. The Atlantic States Fishery Management Plan requires that all states set at least a 12-inch minimum size limit for spotted seatrout,” she said.

A stock assessment was completed on spotted seatrout in North Carolina and Virginia in 2014 and indicated that the stock was not overfished, or that the stock size was in good shape, and that overfishing was not occurring, meaning that removals from fishing were considered sustainable for a long-term benefit of the stock, between 1991 and 2012.

Bauer said that a management threshold of 870,000 pounds and target of 1.37 million pounds were set based on the spawning potential ratio, or the reproductive potential of a fished stock compared to its unfished level of 20 and 30%, respectively. “If the spawning stock biomass of spotted seatrout falls below these levels, management measures will be considered to reduce harvest and rebuild the stock.”

The assessment estimated that the spawning stock biomass, or weight of mature females in the stock, during the final year of the assessment in 2012, was more than 2.5 million pounds, so well above both the management threshold and target.

For fishing mortality, or the rate at which fish in a stock die because of commercial and recreational fishing, a management threshold of 0.656 and target of 0.422 were set, also based a 20 and 30% reduction in spawning potential caused by fishing, Bauer continued.

If fishing mortality increases above these levels, management measures will be considered to reduce harvest and rebuild the stock. “The 2014 assessment estimated that fishing mortality during the final year of the assessment (2012) was 0.401, which was close to the fishing mortality target, but still below the threshold, indicating overfishing was not occurring,” Bauer said.

According to the North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries website, numerous surveys will take place each year to keep a close eye on the spotted seatrout population and to collect information that may be used during future stock assessments.

A juvenile index for spotted seatrout is calculated each year from the North Carolina Estuarine Juvenile Trawl Survey in June and July, and serves as an indicator of juvenile abundance in the state. Results from the survey typically track well with years following a cold stun and can give an indication of the recovery. Following a peak in 2018, the average number of fish per tow decreased in 2019, and again in 2020 to the lowest abundance since the survey began in 2004.

“Research needs include obtaining size-specific and batch fecundity estimates for spotted seatrout in North Carolina; identifying spawning areas, and developing area-specific spawning surveys; investigating the relationship of temperature and salinity on release mortality in the commercial and recreational fisheries, and collecting discard information from the commercial and recreational fisheries,” she said.

A new stock assessment for spotted seatrout incorporating data through February 2020 is in the process of being developed and scheduled to be completed in early 2022. This will provide updated information on the status of the spotted seatrout stock in North Carolina and Virginia, Bauer added.

After submitting to Coastal Review last month an article on coyote and foxes, I had an almost out-of-body experience.

For the first time in my more than 40 years as a professional wildlife photographer, I actually witnessed a gray fox climb up and back down a tree.

I was so in awe at the time that I forgot I had a camera in my hands and neglected to take a photo of the animal climbing up the tree, but I regained my composure and captured a photo of him climbing back down – very cool!

In the first installment, we looked at the life history of foxes and coyotes in North Carolina. In this second installment, we will look at the best ways to avoid conflicts while coexisting with these wild canids now found in every corner of the state. We also will review the laws regulating hunting and trapping, and what to do if animals cause problems, or property damage.

As construction of new residential developments continue at a high rate, fox sightings are becoming increasingly common across the state, especially with the abundance of food and den sites available to foxes in suburban environments.

While the animals can be fascinating to watch, many people fear these foxes may have rabies. Seeing one, even during the day, does not necessarily mean the fox is sick. During specific times of the year, it is not unusual to see foxes during the daytime and in urban settings.

Foxes are responding to the lack of threats posed by people and the abundance of food in these areas. If an animal shows signs of rabies, including being aggressive, stumbling, or the classic foaming at the mouth, it is time to call your local animal control officer.

Chris Turner, North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission District 1 Wildlife biologist, explained in an interview that coexisting with foxes and coyotes is an important part of living anywhere in North Carolina but it certainly plays a big role in heavily developed coastal beach communities.

“The first step to coexisting with wildlife is educating ourselves about fox and coyote behavior and making our neighbors aware that seeing foxes and coyotes is generally part of life here,” Turner said.

Turner said to always respect wildlife and keep a safe distance of at least 50 yards or more when possible. “During the late spring and summer months, it is not unusual to have foxes denning with kits in close proximity to yards or even underneath outdoor buildings. Do not approach foxes or known fox dens, keep pets away, and never feed foxes in your yard,” Turner said.

Even if the young animal appears to be alone, they are not necessarily abandoned because many animals do not stay with their young and only return to frequently feed them.

“If you or a pet try to approach a den, the female fox may act defensively to protect her kits,” Turner said, adding that foxes are wildlife and do not want to be around people but will tolerate people if food sources are present or a den site is nearby.

“While it is in a fox’s nature to be curious, and it may even appear to be bold sometimes, foxes are not normally aggressive and unprovoked attacks on people, including children, are very rare,” he said, but, like other wildlife, foxes will become habituated if people feed them, either purposely with food or table scraps, or inadvertently, such as with garbage, bird feeders, or outdoor pet food.

“Everyone should do their part to coexist with foxes and other wildlife by preventing conflicts. The most important preventative tool is identifying attractive food sources and removing them. Never feed foxes or coyotes or allow them to be fed,” Turner added.

If you see a fox several times around your home or neighborhood, this is a sign that you and your neighbors should take steps to prevent conflicts with them and other wildlife.

This can be done by putting in place the following steps outlined on the Wildlife Resources Commission website:

• Do not approach or pet a fox or coyote. Enjoy the experience from a respectful distance using binoculars, or a telephoto lens on your camera.
• Do not feed foxes, coyotes other any other wild animals, including feral cats. Foxes and coyotes will lose their fear of people. Feeding a fox, or coyote sends a signal to the animal that it is OK to get close to people. Once they get used to being around people, they may become less hesitant and may become aggressive.
• Make sure the covers of your trash cans have a tight fit. Take the trash out the morning your trash is collected, not the night before. Coyotes and other wildlife including raccoons and opossums will scavenge trash that is easy to get their paws on — an easy meal.
• Only feed your pets inside, or remove food when your pet is finished eating outside, including any leftover scraps. Foxes and other wildlife are attracted to pet food left outdoors.
• Make sure any openings leading to under your shed, porch, deck or house are properly sealed. Foxes and coyotes may use these spaces to take a nap or build their den.
• Remove any fallen fruit tree and branches from around your home.
• Use bird feeders that keep seed off the ground. Foxes and coyotes are attracted to small animals congregating on the ground as a potential snack. If you see foxes on a regular basis, remove any bird feeders.
• Keep your pets inside. Dogs and cats can disturb dens and may cause a protective mother fox to become aggressive toward your pet. There is also a strong possibility that a little pup could become a snack for a hungry coyote. Coyotes can easily jump over 6-foot fencing to get to your pets, so don’t think Fido is necessarily safe behind a wooden fence.
• Make sure you have fox-proof fencing around your home, chicken coop or rabbit pen to protect unsupervised domestic animals. An electric fence will work well to protect chickens and rabbits and can be found at your local home improvement store.
• Try to make noise near a den site, such as playing a radio loudly. It is possible that the constant noise will convince the fox to move her den to another area. Keep shining a flashlight at the entrance of a known den, and leaving it there may also tell mom it is time to relocate.
• Yell, jump up and down, wave your arms, bang pots and pans or anything else available to make noise to convince the foxes and coyotes to go elsewhere. This will also remind them that it may not be so safe to hang around your house.
• Share this information with your neighbors and work together to do all the right things when it comes to having wildlife in residential areas. What you do will not be as effective if your neighbors are still feeding local wildlife.

“Again, prevention is always the key. Implement the nonlethal, preventative steps first to keep foxes from becoming regular visitors to your yard, especially in beach communities,” Turner said, and by making sure that food is not part of the equation helps keep things where they need to be in nearly all cases.

If a situation arises, residents can all the Wildlife Resource Commission’s N.C. Wildlife Helpline at 866-318-2401, 8 a.m. to 5 p.m. Monday through Friday, to speak with a trained biologist about wildlife and any concerns about specific damage or nuisance situations.

Residents can also call local animal control if a fox or coyote exhibits signs of rabies.

If a wild animal comes in direct contact with a person or pet, call your local health department and veterinarian immediately. Keep in mind that other diseases, such as canine distemper, can have the same symptoms as rabies.

“The N.C. Wildlife Resources Commission monitors and keeps records of various wildlife diseases, as they are a natural part of wildlife populations and serve as one normal cause of mortality,” Turner explained. He said to contact the commission when animals are found dead for no apparent reason or when disease concerns arise.  

Fox, coyote hunting and trapping

Regulated hunting by properly licensed hunters and trapping by licensed trappers remain effective tools for managing fox and coyote populations.

“Always be familiar with all state and local fox and coyote regulations before taking any direct action,” Turner said. Visit the commission website for current fox and coyote regulations and hunting season dates.

In North Carolina, trapping and hunting seasons for foxes are set and changed only under the authority of the General Assembly. Statewide, the trapping season for specific wild animal and furbearer species is Nov. 1 to Feb. 28.

Every county sets their own rules and regulations for hunting and trapping foxes. Foxes can be hunted in some counties using firearms and archery equipment. The website is very specific with the rules and regulations of trapping, and will vary widely depending upon the county in which you want to set your trap.

If a fox or coyote has caused property damage and removal of an animal under a depredation permit is necessary, contact a wildlife control agent, a private individual who may charge for their services. A list of these agents can be found on the commission website.

In five counties in northeastern North Carolina there are special rules in place regarding coyote hunting. Depredation permits for property damage can only be issued by Wildlife Resources Commission staff.

“It is illegal to relocate foxes or coyotes in North Carolina due to the potential of spreading diseases to other areas and because the animal would likely not survive trying to get back to its normal home range,” Turner said. “In some cases, lethal removal may become an option for a landowner when property damage is occurring on their own property.”

Licensed trappers interested in trapping foxes during a regulated trapping season must be familiar with local county fox laws.

The commission website says from Jan. 2-23 fox trapping is allowed in Clay, Graham, Henderson, Macon and Tyrrell counties with a daily bag limit of two and a season bag limit of 10. Trappers must have fox tags prior to taking foxes, and the sale of live foxes under this season is prohibited.

All traps used in the state must have a weather-resistant permanent tag attached with either the trapper’s name and address or the trapper’s identification number and the commission’s phone number, 800-662-7137. The trapper identification number is on the trapping license.

Turner explained that if a trap is placed on the property of another and identified by the trapper identification number, the commission is required to disclose the identity of the trapper to the landowner upon request. Foxes and coyotes may be sold live only to licensed fox preserves.

NCWildlife.org states that it’s illegal to trap wild animals on someone else’s land without possessing written permission that was issued and dated within the previous year by the landowner or his agent. This does not apply to public lands where trapping is not listed as prohibited, including marshlands, tidelands and any other untitled land.

It is also against the law to remove or disturb any legally set trap or remove any fur­bearing animal from a trap without the permission of the trap owner.

Further, it’s against the law to set or use a trap in which animals or birds are suspended when caught. And it’s illegal to set or use a hook of any sort or type to take wild animals or wild birds. Legal trap types include box/cage traps and colony traps, Conibear-type traps and, for beavers only, foothold trap snares. These must be smooth-edged and without teeth or spikes.

In North Carolina, it is unlawful to intentionally interfere with the lawful taking of wildlife or to drive, harass or intentionally disturb any wildlife for the purpose of dis­rupting the lawful taking of wildlife on public or private property, Turner said. “This law does not apply to activity by a person on land he or she owns or leases or to a person who incidentally interferes with the taking of wildlife resources while using the land for other lawful activity such as agriculture, mining or recreation.”

Violation of this subsection is a misdemeanor punishable for a first conviction by a fine not to exceed $1,000, by imprisonment not to exceed 30 days, or by both and punishable for a second or subsequent conviction by a fine left to the discretion of the court.

If you happen to see any behavior that you think is illegal, call your nearest wildlife enforcement officer, county sheriff’s office or police department right away.

Seeing wildlife is a reminder that most food-driven issues can be prevented when we work together and do our part to remove and secure attractants.

“Continuing to responsibly utilize this special wildlife resource through regulated hunting and trapping, where feasible and safe, will allow us to manage wild populations while working together to minimize conflicts now and in the future,” said Turner.

During the past 1,000 years, migratory fish have played an important role in the survival and economic benefit of indigenous people along the Atlantic Coast, as well as early settlers to the New World.

Today, migratory fish including Atlantic sturgeon, American shad, alewife and blueback herring, and striped bass play a significant role in the recreational and commercial fisheries that contribute to the economy of North Carolina. And while these fish are important in employing thousands of workers, including those who catch and process them and manufacturers of lures, boats and other equipment, many have forgotten about the earliest fishers who sought the bountiful runs of silvery fish that migrated through the North Carolina coast and the entire East Coast.

Before contact with Europeans hundreds of years ago, “Various methods were used by Indigenous people to catch migratory fish,” said David Weeden, director of the Tribal Historic Preservation Office of the Mashpee Wampanoag Tribe in Massachusetts.

“We would fish for sturgeon at night from our dugout canoes, utilizing a torch at the bow to attract these enormous fish. Then we would spear them, often time repeatedly because their scales are like armor. Often the spears would be similar to a harpoon. The fish would eventually tire out and be dragged to shore. Fishing for herring, including shad and river herring was done with weirs, throw nets and basket nets, sometimes on a cantilevered system fishing from the banks,” he said.

Using handmade tools and natural materials found along coastal waters, Indigenous people had no digital depth finders or graphite rods.

“The (migratory species’) numbers have significantly declined to where there are imposed bans for non-natives; aboriginal rights are recognized and we take only what we need. The fish were so plentiful historically that you could walk crossed the river on the backs of the herring and alewife. This was a staple source of income in the 17^th and 18^th centuries, where the herring were exported overseas to be canned,” Weeden said.

“Aboriginal hunting and fishing rights have been long established here in Mashpee, Massachusetts, though they are continuously challenged even today. Our access to historic fishing areas is constantly being impeded upon due to over development in coastal areas of our ancestral homelands. We continue to defend our aboriginal rights by exercising them when we go fishing, often being harassed by uninformed environmental officers; where the courts acknowledge and reaffirm our ancestral rights to hunt and fish,” he said.

Colonial America

With Europeans arriving on this continent in ever increasing numbers, the face of fishing changed forever. New technologies were invented, and other uses were created for profiting from the migratory fish in North Carolina and elsewhere along the Atlantic Coast. By the time the Revolutionary War had begun in the latter half of the 18^th century, George Washington’s Mount Vernon Plantation was earning more money from its commercial fishing activities than from farming while Washington was away fighting for independence.

“Shad and river herring were very important to Mount Vernon Plantation for many reasons,” said Ann Rauscher, Mount Vernon Ladies Association. First of all, she said, it was a very important source of income. In many years, more income was derived from his fisheries than from his farming sales up and down the East Coast. “It was very important to Washington to have this dependable source of income. In addition, the shad and herring were used to feed his staff, family, and the slaves he had on the plantation.”

American shad was an important resource in Colonial America for a number of reasons, including as a source of food.

“The early Colonists used it for feed and as a matter of barter to exchange in the marketplace,” said David Whitehurst, retired director of the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries. “The early writings speak of the fish being in such abundance that they would actually be bumping into boats as they tried to ply across the rivers to the point that we have in the record, that George Washington in one day of haul seining on the Potomac near Mount Vernon caught a half million dollars’ worth of fish in one day of haul seining.”

19^th and early 20^th centuries

“During the 19^th and early 20^th centuries, shad and sturgeon suffered from overfishing. There was a mechanization of haul seines, along with the introduction and proliferation of pound nets. A 1925 scientific study proved that pound nets were problematic. Gillnets were also an issue, as well as expanded transportation networks that fostered an expansion of the shad and herring fisheries,” said David M. Bennett, curator of maritime history with the North Carolina Maritime Museum System.

“North Carolina responded to overfishing by working with the U.S. Fish Commission on shad culture and enacted laws that placed limits on commercial fishing. With sturgeon, it went from being a trash fish to an extremely valuable fish in the 1880s. By the early 1900s, fishermen were struggling to catch sturgeon because they had been overfished. In the late 19^th century, there was high demand and good profit margins for shad and sturgeon. That attracted a lot of fishermen to those fisheries and consequently they were overfished,” Bennett said.

The historical record mentions agricultural runoff and erosion, sewage from towns and industrial effluents as having a negative impact on shad and herring. Dams that served gristmills and sawmills were also cited as being problematic.

“Studies on the historical abundance of shad in the Albemarle, do indicate a general downward trend in shad during the 19^th century with a peak in 1897 followed by a plummet in abundance going into the early 20^th century. It was largely caused by overfishing,” Bennett said.

The Last 80 Years

In the early 1940s, recognizing that they could accomplish far more through cooperation rather than individual effort, the Atlantic coast states came together to form the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission, or ASMFC. An interstate compact ratified by the states and approved by Congress in 1942 acknowledged the necessity of the states joining forces to manage their shared migratory fishery resources and affirmed the states’ commitment to cooperative stewardship in promoting and protecting Atlantic coastal fishery resources.

“The goal of the ASMFC is to promote the better utilization of the fisheries, marine, shell and anadromous, of the Atlantic seaboard by the development of a joint program for the promotion and protection of such fisheries, and by the prevention of physical waste of the fisheries from any cause. sustainable and Cooperative Management of Atlantic Coastal Fisheries,” said North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries Special Assistant for Councils Chris Batsavage.

Since the 1940s, the commission has served as a deliberative body of the Atlantic coastal states, coordinating the conservation and management of 27 nearshore fish species, including Atlantic sturgeon, striped bass, river herring, American shad and hickory shad.

Each state is represented on the commission by three commissioners: the director of the state’s marine fisheries management agency, a state legislator and an individual appointed by each state’s governor to represent stakeholder interests. These commissioners participate in deliberations in the commission’s main policy arenas: interstate fisheries management, fisheries science, habitat conservation and law enforcement.

“Through these activities, the states collectively ensure the sound conservation and cooperative management of their shared coastal fishery resources and the resulting benefits to the fishing and nonfishing public,” Batsavage said.

Two pieces of legislation, the Atlantic Striped Bass Conservation Act in 1984 and the Atlantic Coastal Fisheries Cooperative Management Act in 1993, were seen as the kind of success that can be achieved when state and federal agencies and Congress join forces to rebuild coastal fisheries.

“ASMFC management was voluntary before these acts. The acts require all Atlantic Coast states that are included in an ASMFC fishery management plan to implement required conservation provisions of the plan or the U.S. secretary of Commerce, and the secretary of Interior in the case of striped bass, may impose a moratorium for fishing in the noncompliant state’s waters, which improved the effectiveness of ASMFC management,” he said.

Due primarily to overfishing during the 1950s, ’60s and early ’70s, as well as pollution and habitat loss, the fate of many migratory fish was set. The Atlantic sturgeon and shortnose sturgeon are now listed as endangered on the Endangered Species List, while both species of river herring and the American shad are shown as species of special concern.

The striped bass fishery is considered the only success story among migratory species covered in this report, but unfortunately its stock is again overfished. Coastal migratory stocks of striped bass are managed under a fishery management plan developed by the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission under the authority of the Atlantic Striped Bass Conservation Act. Stringent management measures, including harvest moratoria, were implemented by states from North Carolina to Maine to rebuild the depleted coastal stocks with particular focus on the Chesapeake Bay stocks.

“Reduced harvest along with strong year classes from Chesapeake Bay entering the population helped the population grow,” ” Batsavage explained.

In 1995, Atlantic striped bass were formally declared to be restored and commercial and recreational management regulations were relaxed. Current management measures include size limits, seasonal closures, recreational daily bag limits and annual commercial catch quotas, he continued.

“Fisheries remain limited to state waters due to the continued moratorium on fishing for striped bass within the Exclusive Economic Zone. ASMFC’s Striped Bass Management Board is currently developing an amendment to the fishery management plan to end overfishing and rebuild the spawning stock,” Batsavage added.

In addition to interjurisdictional management through ASMFC, the Atlantic Coast states conduct biological monitoring and implement management of these species. While some of the management and monitoring efforts are ASMFC compliance measures, other efforts are for state-specific objectives.

“For example, the striped bass stocks in estuarine waters south of Albemarle Sound are managed by the state of North Carolina because these stocks are not part of the coastal migratory population of striped bass managed by ASMFC,” Batsavage said.

To learn more about the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission’s history, visit http://www.asmfc.org/files/pub/FKIC_Ebook/index.html.

They swell up, they blow up, they puff up. Their unusual defense against predators makes this blowfish a hoot.

Northern puffers are found on the Atlantic coast of North America from Newfoundland to Flagler County, Florida, over sand bottom near or in and around seagrass in waters ranging from 3 to more than 600 feet deep.

It is the only pufferfish that is abundant along the mid-Atlantic coast. This species uses its strong, beak-like mouth to crush the shells of small mollusks, crustaceans and other invertebrates. I have seen small puffers swimming in the surf zone, near breaking waves, feeding on small animals churned up by the wave action.

In North Carolina waters, the northern puffer is a small to medium-sized fish with a blunt body capable of inflating with water and air. Puffers have grayish-brown backs and upper sides, but are yellowish white on the lower sides and belly. Tiny black spots are scattered over most of the body, particularly near the cheeks, and there is a row of seven to 10 vertical bars along the sides. The head and body are covered with prickles that give the skin a sandpaper-like quality, according to the North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries website.

It’s easy to distinguish a northern puffer from its close cousin, the striped burrfish, which is also a frequent visitor to North Carolina coastal waters. First, the puffer is club shaped whereas the burrfish is boxier in shape. Second, the northern puffer has no noticeable spines along its body, while the striped burrfish has large, prominent spines all along the full length of its body. The puffer is small and olive colored, with numerous tiny black spots along its body, while the burrfish lacks the tiny spots.

“The Northern puffer is found in bays and estuaries, as well as offshore waters to depths of at least 180 feet,” Jason Rock, biologist supervisor with the North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, told Coastal Review. “This species is not a schooling species, but has been observed by scuba divers in large, disorganized congregations on the sand bottom. They will feed on mainly shellfish, but will occasionally eat small finfish. The numbers of fish that are caught throughout their range are negligible, but catches are higher further north in New England waters, they are typically caught using crab pots and with hook-and-line. In supermarkets, the puffer is typically sold as fresh Sea squab.”

Between 1962 and 1970, the annual landings from the Chesapeake Bay region alone were between 1 and 12 million pounds. During this period, commercial landings increased as the fish moved their way north during spring from North Carolina to the Chesapeake Bay. During fall, the catch generally moved southward. This gave fisheries scientists a sense that the northern puffer made an annual migration along the coast, but little is known about its life history.

“In North Carolina, from 2010 to 2019, landings averaged around 4,000 pounds. I looked at some recreational landings and they were a little higher and averaged around 30,000 pounds a year from 2000 to 2009. Landings coastwide now are pretty low for both recreational and commercial fisheries,” Rock said.

“This species is also called swell toad, puffer, blowfish, blow toad, toadfish, and sea squab. They are occasionally confused with oyster toadfish, porcupine fish, and striped burrfish, depending upon where in its’ range you find the species,” said Rock.

Northern puffers are usually seen in North Carolina waters ranging from 8 to 10 inches in length, but have been observed up to 14 inches in length and 1½ pounds. No awards are provided for catching northern puffers.

Chris Batsavage, special assistant to councils with the North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, told Coastal Review that the northern puffer is not currently managed by the state, the South Atlantic Marine Management Council nor the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission.

“Pufferfish spawn in the shoal waters close to the shore, from mid-May, in Chesapeake Bay, and from early June through the end of the summer off southern Massachusetts. They are prolific spawners. The ovaries of a Chesapeake Bay female that was 10.5 inches in length had about 176,000 eggs. These eggs are about 1/32 of an inch in diameter, with many small oil globules, that sink and stick quickly to each other, or to whatever they happen to contact on the bottom. Eggs will hatch between three and a half to five days later, depending upon water temperatures in the 67-68 degree Fahrenheit,” Rock said.

According to Henry B. Bigelow and William C. Schroeder’s book, “Fishes of The Gulf of Maine,” first published in 1953, northern puffer larvae are about 3/32 of an inch in length when hatched and are brilliantly colored with orange, red, yellow and black. Within three days, the mouth will form, when they are about 9/32 of an inch in length. At this stage they start to resemble tiny mature northern puffers.  Even at this tender age, they can inflate themselves when threatened.

The fish has four powerful teeth that are used to crush practically any food source they can find including, mussels, clams, crabs, worms, shrimp, sea plants, sea urchins and sea squirts, said Rock.

The northern puffer, unlike species of puffers found elsewhere, is not harmful to eat — it has long been consumed by people. But some scientists believe there may be low-level toxins in the organs and skin of the fish.

“If you want to eat any puffers in North Carolina that you may catch, it is a good idea to remove all of skin and viscera before eating them,” Rock said.

Puffers inflate by placing water or air into a special chamber near their stomachs. A northern puffer that is caught and released while inflated will briefly float upside down at the surface before quickly losing the volume from and swimming away.  And they’re not particularly good swimmers. A northern puffer moves forward in the water column by waving its caudal, or tail, fin back and forth like that of a ping pong paddle.

The best way to catch puffers is to use a hook and line near shore from jetties, piers, small boats and from coastal waters with a double-hook rig that is fished on the bottom and using  bloodworms, shrimp or squid as bait.

“Females are significantly larger than males at each age. Most growth, in terms of length, occurs during the first growing season from June through October,” Rock said.

They become sexually mature between their first and second year of life. Peak spawning occurs in June and July.

Red foxes and gray foxes are common in North Carolina today, but the gray fox is the state’s only native fox species.

Red foxes were brought here from Europe by fox hunters in the early 1700s. Even though storytellers and writers have depicted the red fox as cunning, intelligent and shrewd, the gray fox appears to be winning the survival contest in areas where coyotes have expanded in recent years.

As coyotes become more abundant and continue to expand their range into areas historically dominated by both red and gray foxes, red fox populations are more likely to be negatively impacted.

“While direct fox population declines have not been proven, a few ideas exist as to how coyotes could possibly affect red fox numbers,” said Chris Turner, District 1 wildlife biologist with the North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission. “One thought is that since gray foxes have the ability to climb trees it is quite possible that many gray fox individuals are able to successfully escape from coyotes whenever a conflict occurs. Red foxes cannot climb and would not have this advantage for dealing with coyotes.”

Also, Turner explained, red foxes and coyotes compete for similar prey, particularly small mammals such as squirrels and rabbits.

“The larger coyote likely wins out over the smaller red fox in this case,” Turner said. “Gray fox diets are more flexible, and they can rely on more diverse sources of food. This likely further reduces the effects of competition between gray foxes and local coyotes. Research has shown a more likely scenario to be that coyotes simply displace local fox populations, pushing them into less suitable areas, rather than causing direct mortality and population declines.”

It might seem that the greatest potential for coyotes to diminish red fox populations would occur with fox populations that may already be experiencing losses from disease.

“Long-term habitat declines across the landscape, particularly the reduced availability of the shrubby, old-field habitats that support important small mammal and bird resources, are certainly always a factor when considering causes of possible changes in fox populations,” said Turner.

At the time of European settlement, coyotes were found only in the Great Plains and the Midwest — west of the Mississippi River — but they have since expanded their range to most of North America and parts of Central America and Canada, according to the NCwildlife.org website. Prior to the 1980s, coyotes seen in North Carolina were believed to have been illegally imported and escaped or released for hunting. However, by the 1980s, coyotes had begun to expand into western North Carolina.

By 2005, coyotes had been documented in all 100 North Carolina counties, appearing as far east as Hatteras Island by 2009. Coyotes are now established statewide in North Carolina and across the Southeast.

There are four wild canid species in North Carolina, including red and gray foxes, coyotes and the red wolf, which is listed as an endangered species under the Endangered Species Act. How do you tell them apart? It takes practice and viewing many foxes and coyotes to discern the differences.

The red wolf, which is found only in certain northeastern North Carolina counties, is larger than the other three wild canids and is more like a German shepherd in size with a reddish coat.

Red foxes

The red fox’s face is the most doglike. Gray fox faces more closely resemble that of a cat.

While a coyote’s face is doglike, they are much larger than either fox found in North Carolina.

The red fox has black legs and a white tail tip, the gray fox has black back stripe.

The red fox is named for its reddish or orangish coloration. The tail, body and top of the head are all some shade of yellowish orange to reddish orange. The undersides are light, and the tips of the ears and lower legs are black.

The NCwildlife.org website describes the tail of the red fox as being long, about 70% as long as the head and body length, bushy and has a white tip. Adults are the size of a small dog and weigh from 7.7 to 15.4 pounds. Red foxes, like many other wildlife species, prefer a diversity of habitats rather than large tracts of one habitat type.

Preferred habitats include farmland, pastures, brushy fields and open forest stands. They frequently hunt the brushy edges of these open habitats for small mammals and birds that live there. Red foxes can also find food in residential areas and neighborhoods when other prey are limited and opportunity arises.

Red foxes will range in size from between 36 and 42 inches in length, from nose to tip of tail and 16 inches at the shoulder. They will weigh 8 to 15 pounds and males average about 2 pounds heavier than females.

Female foxes are called vixens. Males and females reach sexual maturity at 10 months of age. Young foxes are called kits or pups.

Red foxes mate for life and like coyotes generally mate in January in North Carolina. Gestation is about 52 days. Red foxes have one litter per year in late February through April, with an average of five kits.

Kits are born in dens that the parents dig or one abandoned by other animals. In residential areas, foxes may den under storage sheds or other structures. Males provide food for the mother until the pups can be left alone. At that point, the female nurses the pups during the day and hunts at night.  Young foxes learn to hunt at about three months and, as they grow older, venture out to establish their own home range in the fall.

Red foxes can live about five years, although most wild foxes do not live that long, Turner said.

The red fox pursues a variety of food types, however rabbits, meadow voles, and mice make up the main part of its regular diet. Like coyotes, foxes are predators that are known to steal chickens and other unprotected, free-ranging poultry such as turkey, ducks and domestic geese if the opportunity arises. They will also eat insects, birds, eggs, fruits and berries in spring, summer and fall. Since the red fox is also an opportunistic scavenger, it may also eat carrion and garbage in some locations if available.

Gray foxes

Gray foxes inhabit all areas of the state from the Outer Banks to the mountains. Home ranges of gray foxes vary considerably, based food availability and habitat, according to NCwildlife.org. Their ranges can vary from 74 acres to more than 6,000 acres, again based on habitat quality, population density and the reproductive status of individual foxes. Like other canids, they are territorial.

The gray fox is usually a little smaller than the red fox and is quite a bit darker in color. This species are often confused with red foxes because of a reddish or rusty coloration on the sides of their necks and on their legs. The gray fox color has more of a salt-and-pepper look with a darker streak along the animal’s back along the top of the tail and ending in a black tip. Adults can weigh as much as a red fox, 7 to 15 pounds, but the gray fox has noticeably shorter legs along with shorter fur, which makes them look physically smaller than their red fox cousin.

If you see tracks that look like those of a domestic cat but also show obvious claw marks like those of a dog, then you have likely spotted a gray fox’s footprints. Native gray foxes are more adapted to warmer latitudes than red foxes, and another way to tell the two apart is by looking for little or no fur visible between the toe and foot pads, which contributes to a more obvious footprint than those left by red foxes.

“Gray foxes grow to between 30-45 inches long, with their tail being about one-third of this length. They are only from 12 to 15 inches in height. Gray foxes use a diversity of food sources found in a variety of habitat types. Native fruits, such as persimmons and grapes, as well as agricultural crops such as corn and peanuts are eaten more often by gray foxes than other fox species. To round out their seasonal diet, gray foxes hunt small mammals such as mice, rats and rabbits. They also feed on birds and insects opportunistically,” Turner said.

Gray foxes usually mate before their first birthday. Males most presumably mate with only one female each year and may mate with the same female in consecutive years between late January through February.

For gray foxes, the pregnancy period is about 59 days. Gray foxes have one litter per year, with the litter size being like that of red foxes, ranging between three to five kits per litter.

The kits’ will first open their eyes when they are between 10 to 12 days of age. The kits are completely weaned by the time they are 10 weeks old. They then leave the family group in early fall and fend for themselves.

Gray foxes usually only live about a year or two, with few living longer than 6 years in the wild.

Coyotes

“The coyote is native only to North America,” Turner said. “Of all wild canine species, the coyote has the widest range in this country. Coyotes are one of the most wide-ranging and most adaptable species on this continent.”

Coyotes in North Carolina may appear smaller than their northern counterparts, with pointed and erect ears and long slender snouts, according to NCwildlife.org. The tail is long, bushy and black-tipped and is usually carried pointing down. The color of their fur is extremely variable, typically dark yellowish gray, but it can range from blond to red to totally black.

Adult coyotes are about the size of a medium-sized dog, similar in size and build to a border collie, weighing between 20 and 45 pounds, but with much longer legs than most domestic breeds of this size. The coyote also has a one-of-a-kind long and full tail that helps them stand out from any domestic breed when seen from afar.

“Coyotes on the coastal plain may appear to be thin and shaggy, especially in the hot summer months. People who see them may think that they are poor or scraggly, but it is just their thin summer coat that makes them look that way. Size is also variable, but averages about 2 feet tall at the shoulder and 4 feet in length,” said Turner.

The coyote is a carnivore but is quite adept at surviving as an omnivore, eating almost anything it can find. They are not picky eaters, rather they are opportunistic feeders, meaning they will feed on what is most readily available and easiest to get their teeth around. They eat rabbits, rodents, fruit, berries, birds, frogs, snakes and insects, but they will also feed on animal remains, including roadkill. Garbage, bird feeders and pet food left outdoors are also easy meals. Hunting as a pack, they are also capable of taking down a white-tailed deer.

In residential areas, it’s best to keep cats inside to protect them from potential encounters with hunting coyotes.

Like many wild animals, the coyote’s diet varies with seasonal changes.

Coyotes are also monogamous, but if their mate dies, a coyote will seek another.

Coyote populations fluctuate from year to year – their annual litter sizes change depending on the availability of food in the adults’ home range.

If there is an abundance of food and little competition from other coyotes in the area, they will have a larger litter of pups, and more pups will survive to adulthood. In contrast, when available food is in short supply, litter sizes and the survival coyote pups is reduced. This constant change in litter sizes and their survival helps regulate coyote populations over time.

Occasionally, a pup from the previous year’s litter will stay behind to help raise the following year’s litter.

Coyotes can travel very long distances to establish territories and to find abundant food sources. Research in North Carolina has documented young, dispersing coyotes traveling distances greater than 200 miles in just a few weeks. Their habitat can range from agricultural fields to forested regions, from urban and suburban neighborhoods to barrier islands along the Outer Banks. 

Coyotes, like other wildlife, are adapting to the urban-suburban environment and are opportunistic in finding food and resources available in these places.

“Coyotes are definitely equipped to be survivors,” Turner said.

The Atlantic wahoo is prized by recreational fishermen, with recreational landings totaling more than 2.4 million pounds in 2019, but it’s also sometimes mistaken for another well-known gamefish, and there are a number of challenges related to management of the species.

Frequently confused with king mackerel, wahoo are found in tropical and subtropical waters around the world.

“They are an offshore, warm-water fish usually found alone or in small schools hanging around near drifting objects like seaweed. In the western Atlantic, you can find and catch this species from New Jersey south to Colombia, as they migrate through the Gulf Stream north in the summer and returning to the tropics in the winter,” said Tracey Bauer, fisheries biologist with North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries.

The wahoo has a long, narrow body, a pointed snout and a continuous dorsal, or top fin. Its body is somewhat tapered like a mackerel, with a deeply forked tail, which is sign that this fish can move, and really move, as quick as any member of the tuna family.

Its body color ranges from a steel blue on top down to a paler blue coloration on their bottom. They have relatively small scales, with 25 to 30 blackish-blue vertical bars that are visible down both sides of the lateral line while alive and in the water. The bars fade quickly after the fish has perished.

In North Carolina waters, wahoo grow up to 8 feet in length. State citations are given for the landing of any wahoo weighing 40 pounds or more. The North Carolina state record is 150 pounds, which was caught off Ocracoke Island in 1994.

Atlantic wahoo grow quickly but they are most commonly caught at sizes between 3.3 to 5.4 feet in length. They don’t live very long, only about 5 or 6 years, but they can reproduce at about a year old.

“For males, this is when they reach 2.8 feet in length, and for females, 3.3 feet in length. Atlantic wahoo spawn multiple times throughout the spawning season. They are very productive, and may release anywhere between a half-million to 45 million eggs per year to compensate for eggs and larvae that might not survive to adulthood due primarily to predation,” Bauer said.

In North Carolina waters, wahoo will mainly feed on other fish like frigate mackerel, butterfish, porcupine fish and round herring, as well as squid, and argonauts, or paper nautilus. They quickly and aggressively pursue and overcome their prey, capturing the fish with their strong jaws and powerful tail fin. They usually compete for food with tuna, but may also feed on larger prey, using their sharp teeth to make quick work of anything they catch. But other predators that share their habitat can also feed on young wahoo.

Management challenges

The National Marine Fisheries Service, also known as NOAA Fisheries, and the South Atlantic Fishery Management Council, in cooperation with the Mid-Atlantic and New England fishery management councils, manage the Atlantic wahoo fishery under the Dolphin and Wahoo Fishery of the Atlantic Fishery Management Plan.

“Managing a popular offshore fish species along the entire Atlantic Coast can be a challenge under the best of circumstances. Add an international component, lack of stock assessments and the cascading effects of new catch-level recommendations mixed with differing perceptions on the condition of the fisheries, and the challenge increases,” said Steve Poland, a marine fishery policy analyst and manager based in Morehead City.

Poland, who is executive assistant for councils with the North Carolina Department of Environmental Quality’s Division of Marine Fisheries and vice chair of the South Atlantic Fisheries Management Council, said the migratory species is prized for its colorful display as a fighting fish, “and for their delicious flavor.”

In April 2020, the South Atlantic Council’s Scientific and Statistical Committee provided new acceptable catch recommendations for wahoo. The updated recommendations were mainly prompted by revisions to recreational data collected through the Marine Recreational Information Program, or MRIP, a partnership between state marine resource agencies and NOAA Fisheries.

Changes to the program’s survey efforts have resulted in revised recreational landings estimates that are being incorporated into catch-level recommendations, not only for wahoo, but several other species managed by the council.

“Because the wahoo fishery is primarily recreational, with 96.07% of the annual catch limit for wahoo currently allocated to the recreational sector, the recreational landings estimates from MRIP are especially important for management,” said Poland. “Stock assessments are unavailable for wahoo due in part to the migratory nature of the species but also due to a lack of reliable data on the stock dynamics of this fish. In the western Atlantic, they are found from Nova Scotia to Brazil, including Bermuda, the Caribbean Sea, and the Gulf of Mexico.”

There’s no size limit for recreational catch of wahoo, but there is a bag limit of two fish per person, per day. Recreational sale of dolphin and wahoo is prohibited, “unless the seller holds the necessary commercial permits,” Poland said.

For commercial fishers, there is no limit on the numbers of wahoo that may be caught per trip, but each trip is subject to a limit of 500 pounds, which must be landed head and tail intact.

Allowable gear includes hook-and-line, manual, electric and hydraulic rods and reels, bandit gear, handlines, longlines and spearfishing, including powerhead gear. Longline fishing for dolphin and wahoo is prohibited in areas closed to the use of such gear for highly migratory pelagic species, Poland clarified.

Owners of commercial vessels or charter vessels and headboats must have vessel permits and, if requested, submit reports. Dealers are also required to hold permits and, if requested, submit reports. Longline vessels must comply with sea turtle protection measures.

“For a commercially permitted vessel fishing north of 39 degrees north latitude, that does not have a federal commercial vessel permit for dolphin or wahoo, there is a trip limit of 200 pounds of dolphin and wahoo, combined. Operators of commercial vessels, charter vessels, and headboats that are required to have a federal vessel permit for dolphin and wahoo must have and display operator permits,” he said.

To apply for a vessel, dealer or operator permit, contact the Permits Office, NOAA Fisheries Southeast Regional Office, 263 13th Avenue S., St. Petersburg, FL 33701, or by phone at 727-824-5326.

According to the South Atlantic Marine Fishery Management Council website, an operator permit card issued by NOAA Fisheries’ Northeast Region is valid for the South Atlantic Dolphin/Wahoo fishery. Similarly, persons who already possess an operator permit card to participate in the South Atlantic rock shrimp fishery do not need to obtain a separate operator card.

For information on how to apply for an operator permit from NMFS Northeast Region, visit their website.

Reprinted from Ocracoke Observer

The red knot is an amazing bird.

Only about the size of an American robin and usually weighing under 5 ounces, it completes a marathon migratory flight.

Most of these knots, the rufa subspecies, winter in Tierra del Fuego, the southernmost tip of South America.

From there, their 9,000-plus-mile route to their nesting area in the middle- and high-Arctic areas of northern Canada is one of the longest migration routes for a bird.  Although some red knots winter in the United States — with some most years on Ocracoke — Florida has the highest numbers.

These incredible migrants are also at risk of extinction, and information about their migration through North Carolina may help with population recovery efforts.

These shorebirds became a news story this spring when the annual red knot survey in the Delaware Bay region noted greatly diminished numbers.

This bay is a major staging area since red knots feed primarily on the normally plentiful horseshoe crab eggs before resuming their migration to the Arctic.

The dismal numbers — approximately 7,000 reported in the Delaware Bay area — signaled a significant decline in their numbers, which is about a third of those counted just last year in 2020 and the lowest since the early 1980s when the population was about 90,000.

Most of the blame has been attributed to overharvesting of horseshoe crabs for bait and biomedical products.

Other reasons for the precipitous drop cite climate change and sea level rise, coastal development, reduced food availability at coastal stopover areas, and human-related disturbances by vehicles, pets, low-flying aircraft and motorboats.

In 2020, horseshoe crabs did not arrive in the Delaware Bay when the red knots passed through due to unusually cold ocean waters.

Without this important food source, it is feared that many knots did not survive their long trek to the Arctic last spring, which would account for this year’s extremely low numbers.

Some theories for the low numbers suggest that when they do not find sufficient food sources one year, they may avoid those areas and find others.

Ocracoke Island and other areas of the Outer Banks have had good numbers of knots passing through in spring migration for the last couple of years.

According to information supplied by the National Park Service, a survey on May 12 produced a peak count of 1,100 red knots, surpassing the highest 2020 single-day count of 750.

The Core Sound area of the Cape Lookout National Seashore harbored 1,838 individuals on May 16, which, according to Meaghan Johnson, chief of resource management and science for National Parks of Eastern North Carolina, was the highest peak count in that area since 2016.

Significantly, observers noted a frenzied feeding behavior as the knots beefed up for their remaining long flight to the Arctic.

Considering the diminished numbers tallied in the Delaware Bay survey, the number of red knots passing through North Carolina becomes more significant, said Jon Altman, resource management supervisor at Cape Lookout National Seashore.

This view was shared by Larry Niles, an independent wildlife biologist who once headed New Jersey’s endangered species program. He has been monitoring the birds’ migration on the New Jersey side of Delaware Bay for the last 25 years. He has said that the best hope for the species to survive lies in a complete ban on harvesting female horseshoe crabs until the crab population recovers.

“We need to know more about red knot migration through North Carolina,” he said.  

It is not known whether these Tarheel knots stop in the Delaware Bay region following their Outer Banks refueling stop. It is worth considering attaching radio geolocator tags on some to track their movements to help identify important stopover locations and the length of stays during their epic migration.

To read more about red knots, visit Birds of Ocracoke: the Red Knot.

This story is provided courtesy of the Ocracoke Observer, a newspaper covering Ocracoke island. Coastal Review is partnering with the Ocracoke Observer to provide readers with more environmental and lifestyle stories of interest along our coast. 

The word “Tarpon” conjures images from fishing lore of large, silvery fish making spectacular leaps out of the water when hooked. 

Atlantic tarpon are actually closely related to eels. They may not look at all like their cousins when adults, but their larval stages are considerably more similar.

Also known as “the silver king,” tarpon are found in the Atlantic Ocean from North Carolina south to Brazil, throughout the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico. A population is now established on the Pacific side of central and northern South America. These large fish can grow up to 8 feet in length, but they weigh an average 25 to 80 pounds. 

In North Carolina waters, the largest tarpon caught was in 2008 off the Sea View Pier in North Topsail Beach by Malcolm Condie and weighed 193 pounds, 5 ounces.

This species is frequently found nearshore and in mangrove creeks. Tarpon are encountered by divers at dive locations like “Tarpon Alley” off the northern side of Grand Cayman Island in the Caribbean. Divers can easily approach tarpon to get a closer look, providing no sudden movements are made. Being in the water so close to these beautiful fish was humbling. Some dwarfed my own size. I was glad they do not like the taste of people!

Tarpon biology

“Atlantic tarpon use a variety of coastal habitats, including wetlands, creeks, freshwater rivers, estuaries and the ocean. They can live in full freshwater and full seawater and can tolerate areas with low oxygen by gulping air at the surface,” said Dr. Aaron J. Adams, director of science and conservation with the Bonefish and Tarpon Trust in Miami, Florida.

Tarpon are a tropical species but also thrive in the subtropics and seasonally move into temperate areas during the warm summer months, Adams said. “They can’t survive water temperatures below 50 degrees, and if the water is already cool, a strong cold front that drops the water temperature quickly can also kill them.”

Tarpon are members of a group of fish whose larval stage are clear or translucent, ribbon-shaped animals. Other fish belonging to this group include tenpounders, bonefishes and eels.

“Atlantic tarpon spawn seasonally, between May and August, generally near the full moon. During spawning season, tarpon have been observed swimming in a circular, rotating manner that recreational anglers call a daisy chain,” Adams said.

“Scientists speculate that this behavior could be a response to predators or could be a pre-spawning activity. Near full moons during spawning season, large schools, often, between 25 to 200 individuals, will move offshore into deep water to spawn. They are broadcast spawners, ejecting their eggs and milt in the open water, where the eggs are fertilized,” Adams said. “These fish have a very high egg generation rate, and large females may produce more than 12 million eggs and likely spawn more than once in a spawning season. The eggs hatch in about a day, and the larvae live as plankton in the open ocean for about a month before moving inshore toward juvenile nursery habitats.”

After being spawned near the edge of the continental shelf, tarpon eggs and larvae begin to grow and drift toward potential nursery habitats. Hatching at a size of about a quarter-inch, the larvae take 20-30 days to complete their development through their leptocephalus, or “slender head” stage while feeding on gelatinous “marine snow” as they grow to about an inch in length.

“These larvae have a clear, transparent broad ribbon-like shape, tiny head and fang-like teeth. Throughout their development, they’re drifting with the prevailing currents, and if they’re lucky, they end up near an estuarine inlet about the time they are ready to move into a nursery marsh. Wind-driven onshore flow, including being pushed by hurricanes, may allow high numbers of larvae to reach a nursery,” said Adams.

As they move onshore, larvae begin undergoing a physiological change into a juvenile form which has adapted to live in coastal marshes. Unlike the larvae of most fishes, larval tarpon, along with their bonefish, ladyfish, and eel relatives, actually shrink as they use the energy and nutrients in their bodies to fuel the development of a new body form.

“Within a few days, as they move into upper marsh habitats, they are less than three-quarters of an inch long, but have begun to grow juvenile body features — fins, including the dorsal, or top fin, and filament characteristics of tarpon, a swim bladder for buoyancy and ultimately air breathing, modified laws and gut. These early juveniles then begin feeding on small plankton, and mosquito larvae. Within four to five weeks, they develop their scales and silver pigment, reach 1½ inches long and look like a real tarpon,” Adams said.

Tarpon become sexually mature between 7 and 12 years of age. As with many species, males tend to become mature at earlier ages and smaller sizes.

“We’ve captured males exuding milt during spawning seasons, for example, that were only 50 inches in length. Tarpon have been aged as old as 80 years,” said Adams.

An Atlantic tarpon’s favorite foods include Atlantic needlefish, pinfish, along with numerous species of shrimp and crabs, dependent upon where they are hunting throughout their range. They will pursue their prey both during the day and at night.

Tarpon management

According to Chris Batsavage, special assistant for councils with the North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, this species is currently not being managed by the state, South Atlantic Marine Fisheries Council or the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission.

“The commercial sale of Atlantic tarpon is illegal in the state, and there is a proposal to make the current one-fish-per-day recreational limit changed to catch and release only,” he said. “The final approval of the rule change, should be made within the next 12 months.”

Catch and release

“The Bonefish and Tarpon Trust voiced its support at the N.C. Marine Fisheries Commission by highlighting findings from our Bonefish and Tarpon Trust tarpon-tagging project showing that tarpon migrate into North Carolina each summer,” said Lucas Griffin, postdoctoral research associate at the University of Massachusetts Amherst. “Considering our project highlights tarpon connectivity across jurisdictional lines, tarpon conservation and management should be adopted across states to protect the fishery as a whole. Catch-and-release-only regulations are a critical first step to ensure tarpon are able to safely navigate across the Gulf of Mexico and southeastern U.S. to complete both spawning and foraging migrations.”

To date, only Florida and Virginia are catch-and-release only, if North Carolina adopts this practice it will only be the third state in this endeavor and offer a proactive management strategy, Griffin said.

“This is especially relevant considering tarpon migrations may shift in range with warmer sea surface temperatures expected in the future and, thus, angling pressure,” said Griffin.

Griffin co-authored the trust’s catch-and-release guidelines for tarpon.

Suggested catch-and-release procedures for Atlantic tarpon more than 40 inches fork length include the following two key points:

• Do not remove them from the water. This causes too much damage and stress, and decreases their chances of survival.
• Minimize the time you handle the fish in the water next to the boat before release.

Florida regulations prohibit removing tarpon more than 40 inches from the water.

“For tarpon smaller that 40 inches fork length, minimize handling, since this can remove protective slime from the fish. If you handle a fish, use clean, wet hands.

If you hold the fish out of the water, support the fish beneath the head and belly.

Minimize exposure to air. If you want a photo, get the shot set up before removing the fish from the water. If the fish is not still dripping water in the photo, it has been out of the water too long. Avoid using mechanical lip-gripping devices on active fish, since this can cause jaw injury,” Griffin said.

If a tarpon’s weight is desired, measure the length and girth and use a chart to estimate its weight. Keep fingers away from the gills; damaged gills make it hard for the fish to breathe. If a fish loses equilibrium, meaning if it rolls over or goes nose-down on the bottom, revive it until it can swim upright, then shorten the fight time on future fish. When reviving a fish, be sure that water passes over the gills from front to back. Move the tarpon forward or hold it upright in the water allowing it to pump water through its gills. In warmer water, reduce fight and handling time, the guidelines suggest.

“When fishing with bait, use circle hooks. If a hook is deep within the throat, cut the line as close to the hook as possible this causes less damage than removing a deeply-set hook. Most fish are able to reject the hook or the hook dissolves over time. Keep the fight short. Long fight times result in an exhausted tarpon, which is more vulnerable to predators. Use tackle that matches the fish and conditions,” said Griffin.

Since predators can decrease survival of fish after release, when predators become abundant and appear to be attracted to your fishing activity, Griffin recommends moving to another fishing location. If a shark appears while you are fighting a tarpon, break the tarpon off so it has a chance to escape the shark before it is too tired, he said.

Field identification is easy. Tarpon have very large silvery scales, which resemble armor from the days of knighthood.  They have a large scoop shaped mouth, deeply forked tails and a single strand ray which trails off the back, bottom side of the dorsal fin.  A very graceful and elegant creature to observe, and boy, are they powerful!

While “shark attack” is an often-used term, it’s not really accurate because sharks don’t seek out humans to “attack,” they’re just doing what comes naturally in the wild.

Sharks are opportunistic feeders and occasionally bite a surfer or swimmer if they venture into murky waters and splash a lot at the surface. This splashing action sends the shark a signal that you may be wounded, and therefore an easy meal.

North Carolina sharks do not act like they are portrayed in the movies. A shark will not stalk your boat, or jump up and take down a helicopter because they do not like you, or your passengers. Most shark species have a comparatively small brain in proportion to their body size, and hunt by instinct, not because of hatred, or dislike of any human.

There are about 73 species of shark that live or pass through North Carolina waters each year. The availability, and numbers of the various species changes with each season.

As this is Shark Week, which began Sunday and ends July 18, we will talk specifically about those found in area waters during the summer. Shark Week originated 33 years ago on the Discovery Channel.

It is important to note that if you choose to target fishing for these beautiful creatures, you are required by law to use a circle hook at all times.

“North Carolina’s coast is a very sharky place. The fact that important shark habitat includes the state’s estuaries often surprises locals and visitors alike,” said Chuck Bangley, a former graduate student at East Carolina University and writer for NC Sea Grant’s Coastwatch magazine. He is currently a postdoctoral fellow at Dalhousie University in Nova Scotia, Canada.

“So far, my surveys and North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries data have identified a dozen shark species in North Carolina estuaries. Many of those occur often enough to be considered regular members of these ecosystems. The murky waters conceal crucial feeding grounds for these predators, many of which are simply migrating through as they journey up and down the East Coast,” he said.

Sharks are actually beautiful animals that are 100% designed to feed and catch their food — fish or marine mammals — not people.

Their streamlined design of long and tapered bodies as a general rule, large tail or caudal fin for quick bursts of speed, rigid dorsal or top fin for stability while swimming, sensors on their noses to detect motion, or sound waves in the water, and an incredible sense of smell allows a shark to detect exactly where a single drop of blood is coming from many miles away.

David Behringer, North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries shark biologist, told Coastal Review that the division does not sample nearshore ocean areas but for inshore water sampling, they most frequently encounter during summer months Atlantic sharpnose, bonnethead, sandbar, bull shark, smooth dogfish, and blacktip sharks, in order from most frequent to least.

“In addition to inhabiting inshore waterbodies, these species are also found along North Carolina’s ocean beaches,” he said.

“We do not encounter sand tigers in our inshore sampling because they stay in the ocean and do not spend time in the areas we sample, but they are another fairly common shark species in North Carolina,” Behringer continued. “They can be caught by recreational surf fishermen and are also encountered while snorkeling and scuba diving at many of the nearshore wrecks. Although they have quite a menacing set of teeth, they are very docile.”.

During the summer months off the North Carolina coast, the Atlantic sharpnose shark is the most commonly occurring shark species in state waters. However, during winter months that would be the spiny dogfish.

Let’s take a closer look at several species you may find during the warmer, summer months.

The Atlantic sharpnose shark is the single, most common shark off of North Carolina every summer. These are part of a small coastal shark group managed under the National Marine Fisheries Service Fishery Management Plan for Atlantic Tunas, Swordfish and Sharks. The group also includes the requiem species of blacknose, and finetooth sharks, while the bonnethead is a member of the hammerhead species.

“Atlantic sharpnose sharks are a small shark species that have long, slender bodies with elongated snouts, which is where they get their name. They are a brownish-gray color on top and have a white underside. Juveniles have black edges on the dorsal and caudal fins that fade as they become adults. The species is found inshore in the surf zone, bays and estuaries, but also inhabit shallower offshore waters. They grow to about 4 feet,” Behringer said.

Atlantic sharpnose sharks are commonly found in the western Atlantic from New Brunswick, Canada, through the Gulf of Mexico, and are commonly caught in U.S. waters from Virginia to Texas. This is the species you are most likely to catch off of North Carolina waters during the summer.

“Females mature at around 2 years of age in the Atlantic when they reach approximately 2 feet in length, and at around 1.3 years old in the Gulf of Mexico when they are reach about 25 inches in length. This species can live to be up to at least 18 years of age,” he said.

In both the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico, Atlantic sharpnose sharks mate annually between mid-May and mid-July in inshore waters. After mating they migrate offshore to deeper waters. The mother feeds the pups through a placental sac and after a gestation period of 10 to 11 months, the females return to nearshore areas to give birth in June of each year.

“Sharpnose sharks give birth to around four pups each year. Atlantic sharpnose sharks eat a variety of small fish, as well as invertebrates such as worms, shrimp, crabs, and mollusks. Large carnivorous fish, including large sharks, eat Atlantic sharpnose sharks,” Behringer said.

Sandbar sharks can be found off North Carolina during summer months. This brownish-gray shark has a recognizably large and triangular dorsal fin and somewhat long pectoral fins. It averages 6 feet long and about 110 to 150 pounds.

True to its name, this shark prefers the sandy bottoms of coastal areas, and is known for seasonal migration like many other requiem sharks. Because sandbar sharks have such a long growth and reproduction cycle, it is earning selected protected status in many areas.

Since this species prefers smaller prey and has a tendency to avoid beaches and the surface, the sandbar shark poses little threat to humans. Although it has been rarely associated with attacks on humans, its size makes it potentially dangerous.

“Bonnethead sharks are also found in North Carolina waters. They have an elongated front nose that allows the shark to see in different angles and directions than most other sharks in the ocean. They have gill slits for breathing. This shark is known for its’ broad, smooth, spade-like head, they have the smallest hammerhead of all members of this shark family. Their coloration ranges from a gray-brown above to lighter on the bottom. These too, are a rather bashful and harmless shark to humans,” said Behringer.

Their bodies taper to points at both the snout and the tail, making the animal very streamlined while moving through the water, and greatly lowering the drag created by the salt water. Their snouts are covered with sensory organs that pick up electrical signals from potential prey.

“Bonnethead sharks are from the family Sphyrnidae, which is composed of all the hammerhead species. Bonnethead sharks are much smaller than other hammerhead species, such as the smooth hammerhead, and great hammerhead, and reach a maximum size of only 5 feet. This species is found in the warmer waters of the western Atlantic and the eastern Pacific. It ranges from New England, where it is rare, all the way through southern Brazil, and from southern California to Ecuador. During the summer it is common in the inshore waters of the Carolinas and Georgia,” Behringer said.

The bonnethead shark is a more social shark that swims in small groups of five to 15 individuals in a school. They will feed mainly on crustaceans, consisting mostly of blue crabs, a North Carolina specialty, but also shrimp, mollusks and small fish.

“Bonnetheads are viviparous, meaning the female will nourish the embryos internally and give live birth, produce eggs that are held and nourished in her internal reproductive system until the young are mature enough to be released to the outside,” he said.

This species is the fourth most common shark seen during the summertime in North Carolina waters.

Behringer explained that smooth dogfish have a slender body with two dorsal fins nearly equal in size, and reach a maximum size of 5 feet.

“The second dorsal fin is closer to the caudal tail, or back fin of the shark. The gap between the first and second dorsal fin is roughly equal to the distance between the shark’s snout and the first dorsal fin,” he said.

Smooth dogfish are often misidentified as a different species, the spiny dogfish, but there are some notable differences that can be used to distinguish the two species.

“Spiny dogfish have a small spine in front of each dorsal fin and they also have white spots along the side of their bodies. Smooth dogfish do not have spines or spots. Also, smooth dogfish have pelvic and anal fins, while the spiny dogfish only have pelvic fins,” he said. “Additionally, smooth dogfish are most commonly in North Carolina waters in the warmer summer months, while spiny dogfish are most frequently encountered during winter months. Smooth dogfish, are one of the most commonly caught shark species along the North Carolina coast, and can be caught by boats, shore, and pier fishermen.”

Populations of some shark species have been in decline for many years prompting state and federal management agencies to implement many catch restrictions to control the numbers of sharks being removed from the population. Possession of many species are against the law. Because sharks can be very difficult to identify, fishermen should be very careful that they are actually removing the correct species of shark from local waters.

Bangley explained that blacktip sharks are among the larger sharks in the sounds, reaching lengths of 8 feet, although most measure 6 feet or less.

“They occur in ocean waters from late spring to late fall, and usually move into the sounds during the summer and autumn. These fast predators chase schools of menhaden and mullet, and will sometimes make spinning leaps out of the water while feeding. Recreational fishermen target these sharks for the strong fight they can put up when hooked,” Bangley said, adding that blacktip sharks have black margins on every fin but the anal fin. The leading edge of their dorsal fin starts just above or slightly before the trailing edge of the pectoral fin.

Bull sharks, which can reach 10.5 feet in length, are the apex predators of the North Carolina sounds, Bangley added.

“They can tolerate brackish and fresh water, and for that reason can be found in nearly any body of water that has a connection to the ocean. Adults and juveniles have been sighted in the Newport, Neuse and Pamlico rivers, and even parts of the Albemarle Sound. Bull sharks attack large prey, as evidenced by bite scars on resident bottlenose dolphins in the Neuse River and reports of large red drum eaten off fishermen’s hooks. This species can be dangerous to humans and should be treated with caution. Bull sharks are recognizable by their wide body, blunt nose and proportionally small eyes,” Bangley continued.

The spinner shark is a close relative of the blacktip shark and shares its habit of making spinning leaps out of the water. Spinner sharks can grow larger than their blacktip cousins, reaching 10 feet. They can be told apart from blacktips by their sharper, longer snout, a dorsal fin with a leading edge starting after the trailing edge of the pectoral fins, and a black-tipped anal fin.

“Finally, sand tiger sharks can grow to 12 feet and can be found year-round in North Carolina waters, especially around habitat that includes shipwrecks and live-bottom reef habitat. Developing sand tiger sharks will feed on their own siblings in the womb until only two are left, and at birth they are more than 4 feet in length,” said Bangley.

Even though they have a rather savage start to their lives, and look very scary with their sharp, protruding teeth sticking out from their jaws, sand tiger sharks are usually quite docile around humans during daylight hours, which makes them popular with scuba divers and at aquariums.

With their proportionally small fins, pointed snouts and jagged teeth, along with large dark spots running along both sides of their body, sand tiger sharks are easy to tell apart from any other shark found in North Carolina.

Sharks are cool critters that we share the ocean. They are to be respected, but not feared. Use common sense when you enter their domain and you will not have a problem with them. If you surf, swim, or fish, just do not go into water that is very murky, wear something shiny around your neck, or wrist, and avoid going in the water with an open wound, or bleeding fish hanging from your hip. Remember that we are visitors in their home, and show them the respect that they deserve.

Greater amberjack are often called “reef donkeys” by fishermen because of their strength and stubbornness. These powerful fighters can test any anglers’ tackle and ability to land them.

Greater amberjack are commonly caught while anglers are pursuing king mackerel. They have a deeply forked tail like that of tuna. Fishermen catch this species by drifting with live or cut baits, jigging and by trolling with spoons and other deep-running artificial lures. Chumming will draw in and keep schools of amberjack near the boat.

The greater amberjack is a large, fast-swimming fish with a wide range in the wild. They can grow up to 6 feet in length and weigh up to 200 pounds.

These fish are found from Nova Scotia, Canada, south to Brazil, into the Gulf of Mexico, then throughout Caribbean. North Carolina’s record greater amberjack was caught off Swansboro in 2008 by Michael Krantz.

Citations are awarded to North Carolina anglers for fish weighing 50 pounds or more, and there is also an award presented for the live release of any greater amberjack released that is 50 inches or larger.

“Greater amberjack have a dark amber strip on their head, extending from their snout to the first dorsal fin on their back, which becomes more distinct when the fish gets excited, or is busy feeding. Their coloration includes a brownish or bluish-grey back, a silvery-white belly, along with the signature amber horizontal strip along the middle, or lateral line of their body. Young amberjack have a yellow color and five or six dark vertical bars along their sides,” said McLean Seward, North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries biologist.

“This species can be observed swimming in and around shipwrecks, near reefs, rocky outcropping, floating debris and sargassum blooms from open water and reef systems. Studies have shown that greater amberjack generally move in the spring from the Carolinas to southeast Florida, which could be related to spawning activity,” he said.

“Greater amberjack can grow to be up to 6 feet long and live to be approximately 17 years of age. While adults can weigh up to 200 pounds, they are usually caught up to 40 pounds. Females typically grow larger in size and live longer than males. This species become sexually mature by the time they reach about 3 to 5 years old, and usually spawn between March to July, peaking during the months of May and June on reefs and shipwrecks. A single female can release between 18-59 million eggs during each spawning season,” he said.

“Adults eat mostly crab, squid and other fishes found on reefs. Juveniles feed on plankton, including crustacean larvae and other small invertebrates. Predators that feed on amberjack include seabirds and larger fishes, such as yellowfin tuna, and some species of shark,” Seward said.

Amberjack are opportunistic predators that feed over reefs and wrecks in small groups or schools. They will eat practically anything they can fit in their mouths and are able to swallow.

This species is managed by the South Atlantic Fishery Management Council for North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and Florida, along with their federal partner, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s National Marine Fisheries Service, also known as NOAA Fisheries. There are three stocks of greater amberjack: Gulf of Mexico, South Atlantic and Caribbean.

“The Gulf of Mexico stock is overfished, according to a 2017 stock assessment, but is not subject to overfishing based on 2019 catch data. The South Atlantic stock is not overfished and not subject to overfishing according to a 2020 stock assessment. The population status of the U.S. Caribbean Jacks Complex, which includes greater amberjack, is unknown. The complex has not been assessed, but according to 2018 catch data, the complex is not subject to overfishing,” said Steve Poland, executive assistant for councils with the North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries and vice chair of the South Atlantic Fisheries Management Council.

“During a historically high period of landings during the 1980s and 1990s, greater amberjack became an important substitution for red drum, which had experienced a lower trend in commercial landings. In the Gulf of Mexico, fishing rates were too high, and the stock was declared overfished in 2001. The Gulf of Mexico stock has been in a rebuilding plan since 2003,” he said.

There is a recreational daily bag limit of one fish per person per day. In April, limits of one per person per day or one per person per trip, whichever is more restrictive, were put in place for for-hire and charter boats. The minimum size limit is 28-inches fork length.

Federal regulations governing the take of this species in waters between 3 and 200 nautical miles off the coast are mirrored by North Carolina in its state waters by proclamation. Open season for recreational anglers is March 1 through the end of February every year.

Recreational and commercial fishermen are required to use dehooking tools when fishing for snapper-grouper species. At least one dehooking device is required and must be used as needed to remove hooks embedded in South Atlantic snapper-grouper with minimum damage. The hook removal device must be constructed to allow the hook to be secured and the barb shielded without reengaging during the removal process. The dehooking end must be blunt, and all edges rounded. The device must be of a size appropriate to secure the range of hook sizes and styles used in the South Atlantic snapper-grouper fishery.

“A descending device is required to be on board and readily available for use on all vessels fishing for or possessing snapper-grouper species. A descending device is an instrument that you are to attach a minimum 16-ounce weight and a length of line that will release the fish at the depth from which the fish was caught or a minimum of 60 feet. The descending device attaches to the fish’s mouth or is a container that will hold the fish. These are required to be capable of releasing the fish automatically by the actions of the operator of the device, or by allowing the fish to escape on its own. Since minimizing surface time is very important for increased survival, descending devices are required to be on hand and ready for use,” Poland said.

The use of nonoffset, nonstainless steel circle hooks is required when fishing for greater amberjack and other snapper-grouper species with hook-and-line gear and natural baits.

During April of each year, harvest or possession of greater amberjack is limited to one per person per day or one per person per trip, whichever is more restrictive, with no sale allowed and regardless of whether the fish was harvested in state or federal waters. Since this species is managed under an annual catch limit, the fishery could close if the commercial annual catch limit is met or projected to be met.

“If an in-season closure were to be announced by NOAA Fisheries, all relevant information will be included on the (South Atlantic Fishery Management Council) website,” Poland said.

The commercial fishing trip limit for season 1, which runs from March 1-Aug. 3, is 1,200 pounds whole weight or gutted weight. Trip limits for season 2, which runs from Sept. 1 through the end of February, is 1,000 pounds whole weight or gutted weight. The minimum size limit is 36-inch fork length.

“There are two commercial fishing seasons for greater amberjack with 60% of the commercial annual catch limit allocated to season 1 and 40% to season 2, and the transfer of any remaining quota from Season 1 to Season 2. After the commercial annual catch limit is met, all purchase and sale are prohibited and harvest and/or possession is limited to the recreational bag limit. This prohibition does not apply to fish harvested, landed and sold prior to the annual catch limit being reached and held in cold storage by a dealer,” he said. 

Hogfish are strange-looking members of the wrasse family.

Their first three dorsal spines are long and trailing, extending several inches off their dorsal fin.

This species is more laterally compressed, or flattened from side to side, and more oval shaped when compared to other marine fish in the wrasse family. They have cool, red irises in the center of their eyes and a color pattern that constantly changes throughout their lives.

“The color of this species is highly variable and depends upon the age, sex, and habitat where the fish are found,” said North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries biologist McLean Seward.

“They usually range from pearl white to mottled, mixed-in with a brownish-red coloration, with a single black spot located at the back, bottom part of its dorsal fin and is paler underneath. Males are usually more vividly colored than females. Youngsters and females are more typically pale green, reddish brown, or a gray-brown color. Their pectoral fins are usually yellow in color,” he said.

Hogfish in North Carolina can grow as large as 3 feet in length, and weight up to 24 pounds. They can live up to 21 years of age.

“The young fish are usually seen in and around estuaries, and seagrass beds, and shallow reef habitats. Predators of the hogfish include larger fishes, as well as several species of shark,” Seward said.

These fish can be found throughout the western Atlantic, from Bermuda and North Carolina, south to Brazil, the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico. In the United States, hogfish are managed through the South Atlantic Fishery Management Council representing North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and the east coast of Florida.

North Carolina boasts the all-tackle world record for hogfish, with a 24-pound, 5-ounce fish speared at Frying Pan Shoals by diver Derek Williams. The largest fish taken on hook and line was a 21-pound, 15-ounce specimen.

The SouthEast Data, Assessment and Review, or SEDAR, 37 report states that the oldest observed age was 21 years from the Georgia-North Carolina stock and 23 years from the West Florida stock on the Gulf coast, Seward noted.

Hogfish are usually large, bottom-feeding predators that eat during the daytime using powerful jaws and large canine teeth that stick out from the front of their mouths to crush hard-shelled food species including mollusks and crabs. Young hogfish will feed primarily on starfish, sand dollars, mollusks and crustaceans.

“They get their name because of how they hunt for food on the sea floor — they will move in and around the sand with their pointed snout searching for mollusks and crustaceans to eat, quite similar to that of a farm or wild hog,” Seward said.

This species is usually found over open sandy bottoms, and in and around coral reefs. It may be found between 10 to more than 100 feet of water. Hogfish like to hang around where there a lot of gorgonians, also known as a sea fan or sea whip, which are types of soft coral found throughout the oceans of the world, especially in the warmer subtropics and tropics.

“You can find higher numbers of hogfish along the edges of the reef near the sand/reef confluence. They really like habitat with hard sand, and rock bottoms adjacent to shallow reefs right next to the inshore and offshore portions of the reef system. Larger hogfish can be found in and around the main reef are, while smaller individuals prefer the reef patches to hide from predators,” said Seward.

Hogfish are protogynous hermaphrodites, which means they are all born female and change sex to male at a certain size and age.

“A single male holds together a harem of between five to 15 females during an extended spawning season that lasts for months. Sex change can take several months. Research has shown if a dominant male is removed, it has the potential to negatively impact a harem’s stability and may reduce full reproductive potential,” said Seward.

Peak spawning activity for hogfish has been documented numerous times as taking place during the winter and spring months. These studies have shown that spawning activity occurs primarily during the months of December through April. Schools are made up of females and larger, dominant males in his harem. The male will guard his harem, and will only spawn with the females in that harem. Spawning takes place during late afternoon hours, and into the early evening.

“The behaviors exhibited by hogfish as they mate are very interesting,” Seward said. “The male will first court the female, then they rush toward the surface. The male and female will simultaneously release their eggs, and milt into the open ocean where fertilization will take place. The fertilized, free-floating eggs will quickly develop into larvae, hatching approximately 24 hours after spawning takes place. They will stay in the larval stage for several weeks until they grow into juveniles and settle down out of the water down into their preferred habitat.”

Seward explained that life history studies on hogfish in Florida waters estimate that 50% of females reach sexual maturity by the time they are about 1 to 1.5 years old, and about 7 inches in length while 50% of males are estimated to be mature by 6 or 7, and around 17 inches in length.

“There is a lack of available life history information on hogfish off Georgia and North Carolina, but preliminary data suggests that hogfish belonging to this stock mature at larger sizes than off the east coast of Florida, and sexual transition from female to male occurs at approximately 24 inches fork length,” he said.

Steve Poland is the North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries’ executive assistant for councils and vice chair of the South Atlantic Fisheries Management Council. He explained that recreational fishermen can legally pursue hogfish year-round.

“This species is managed by an annual catch limit. If the numbers of fish caught meet or exceed this limit, the fishery would be closed at that time,” Poland said.

There is a limit of two fish per day, per person for recreational fishermen, with a minimum size of 17 inches, fork length.

A federal commercial snapper grouper permit is needed to commercially harvest hogfish in North Carolina waters, and commercial fishermen are also required to report their catch.

“The minimum size for commercial fishermen is also 17 inches fork length. The commercial trip limit in North Carolina waters is 500 pounds whole weight,” said Poland.

North Carolina Marine Fisheries Proclamation FF-10-2021 states that for a vessel with both a valid federal south Atlantic charter/head-boat permit for snapper grouper and a valid federal commercial south Atlantic snapper grouper permit, it is unlawful to exceed the recreational bag limits for snapper grouper species when fishing with more than four persons, including the captain and their mate on board or when carrying paying customers.

Additionally, for a vessel with both permits, it is unlawful to sell or offer for sale any species of the snapper grouper complex harvested when fishing with more than four persons, including the captain and their mate on board or when carrying paying customers.

For scuba divers, hogfish are a fascinating species to watch and photograph. They hang right on the bottom, so divers do not have to chase them through the middle of the water column, and it is cool to observe them dig through the sand bottom with their snouts while looking for food.

I get the feeling when seeing this behavior that I am really on dry land, at a local farm, watching their land-based namesakes doing the same thing.

This time each year, rivers and streams throughout coastal North Carolina are teeming with migratory fish during their annual spawning run.

River herring, Atlantic and shortnose sturgeon and American eel are among those moving upriver. Early last year, we brought you stories on two additional migratory species found in coastal North Carolina waters: striped bass and American shad.

A single river may see only a few individuals, while others may have thousands of migratory fish per year. From the earliest times, pre-Colonial days into the 20th century, river herring, sturgeon and eels have been considered an important food source, often eagerly awaited after harsh winters.

Alewife and blueback herring

River herring are actually two distinct species, the alewife and the blueback, but the two are so closely related as to be almost indistinguishable. So, the common name river herring is generally used for both.

River herring are anadromous, meaning that they feed in saltwater most of their life, but return to freshwater to reproduce. They are found along the entire East Coast, ranging from Nova Scotia to the St. Johns River in northern Florida and migrating up and down the coast with the change of seasons.

“River herring in North Carolina will spawn in late February, through early May. The alewives arrive first, spawning in ponds or slow-moving water when the water temperature is about 55 to 61 degrees Fahrenheit. Blueback herring will arrive three to four weeks later, spawning in faster-moving streams when the water temperature reaches about 58 to 61 degrees. Each female will release an average of over 100,000 eggs directly into the water. Both species spawn in groups, scatter their eggs, and cease spawning when water temperatures rise above 81 degrees Fahrenheit. A large number of eggs are necessary because only a limited number will survive the summer months to make the journey out to the sea,” said Holly White, North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries river herring biologist.

Alewife eggs will settle to the bottom of still pond waters, while the blueback’s eggs will tumble along the bottom gravel streambeds, she said. The eggs are fertilized by milt from males and both species’ eggs will hatch into larvae in three to seven days after spawning, depending upon water temperatures.

Larvae will spend the early summer months feeding and being fed upon. All life stages of river herring are highly utilized forage species for many riverine, estuarine and marine piscivorous species, including airborne predators.

“River herring are important prey for other fish species jointly managed by federal and state governments, including bluefish, American eel, striped bass and weakfish. Freshwater species such as largemouth bass, pumpkinseed, redfin pickerel, shiners, walleye, white bass, white perch and yellow perch also consume river herring,” White said.

River herring primarily feed on zooplankton, although fish eggs, crustacean eggs, insects and insect eggs are also important foods aiding in development. Larvae begin feeding on zooplankton immediately upon formation of a functional mouth, at about a quarter of an inch in length. By summer’s end, the young herring have grown to be about 1 to 2 inches long.

As autumn temperatures begin to drop, river herring make the return journey back to the sea. After three to four years of feeding at sea, herring will make their first spawning run back to the area of their birth. Adults may return to spawn more than once, although the number returning to spawn is reduced as they age.

“Once river herring emigrate from North Carolina’s estuarine waters to the ocean, they migrate north, between 40 and 43 degrees north latitude, to Nantucket Shoals, Georges Bank and the Gulf of Maine to join the coastwide population on the overwintering grounds. In the early spring, mature river herring begin the migration south. Herring native to North Carolina waters will return to the general area in which they were born. Following spawning, both males and female emigrate from the rivers and return to the ocean. River herring spend the summer months in the waters above 40 degrees north latitude, feeding on plant and animal zooplankton,” White said.

River herring are an important link in the coastal ecosystem, providing a vital source of food for stripped bass and bluefish, as well as herring gulls. Nesting osprey and bald eagles also prey on herring to feed their young.

“River herring in North Carolina made up one of the largest freshwater fisheries in the world. Due to loss of available spawning habitat, high fishing mortality and lower water quality, river herring landings in North Carolina began to decline in the mid- to late 1980s,” she said.

Since 2007, the commercial and recreational harvest of river herring has been prohibited in all coastal-joint-inland waters of the state, she said.

American Eel

American eels are catadromous, meaning this species spends most of its life in freshwater, rivers, streams, ponds and lakes, but returns to the sea to reproduce.

This species begin their lives’ journey spawning in the Sargasso Sea near Bermuda, in the North Atlantic. Their eggs hatch out into larvae, which are brought by prevailing currents back to the Atlantic Coast of northern South America, and the Gulf coast.

“As they grow, American eels undergo a metamorphosis and change their appearance dramatically. Their name depends upon the age of the fish, which is determined by the coloration of their body and size. Eels first returning to their home rivers are called glass eels, which are translucent and almost impossible to see with the naked eye,” said Todd Mathes, North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries American eel biologist.

These small fish are between 1 and several inches in length. As they grow, reaching about 6 inches in length, they undergo another change, gaining pigmentation and looking more like baby eels.

“During the next stage of development, the eels turn yellow in color and are called, you guessed it, yellow eels,” Mathes said. “Finally, when the animals grow to between 2 feet and 5 feet in length and become sexually mature, they are called silver eels.”

The sex of American eels isn’t determined until they are about 7.9 to 9.8 inches in length. The determining factor on whether they become male or female is the numbers of eel available in a particular ecosystem. Female eels grow the quickest, and may grow to be 4 to 5 feet in length. Generally, any eel larger than 12.99 inches is considered to be a female. Once an adult eel, they turn silver with larger eyes. When close to becoming sexually mature, the eels start moving back down to the ocean, and will swim some 3,000 miles to the Sargasso Sea. 

“That is where all American eels go to spawn. It is generally assumed that the adults die after spawning. The exact details are still unknown,” Mathes said.

Scientists believe the highly adaptive American eel has some of the most diverse habitats of any species of fish found on the planet. In North Carolina, estuarian habitats, like those found in the Albemarle-Pamlico Sound region, provide the earlier life stages a good home. Lakes and ponds have historically been considered among the most important habitats for the eels to mature and grow, because most eels that grow up in these freshwater environments typically become females.

“At one time, American eels were found throughout all of North Carolina’s coastal waters, even described by early fish collectors as ‘everywhere abundant’ in the upper Catawba River. The American eel finds fresh water habitat in North Carolina in streams and large rivers in the Piedmont and coastal plain regions, but numbers are greatly reduced upstream of many dams,” said Mathes.

Hydroelectric and other dams block or slow movements of elvers, or a young eel, and subadult eels to upstream habitats. American eels continue to be distributed throughout the lower areas of watersheds closest to the sea and sounds. They are prevented from reaching extreme headwaters where they had historically been reported as “everywhere common” in 1889 by scientist D.S. Jordan.

Atlantic, shortnose sturgeon

 All five U.S. Atlantic sturgeon distinct population segments are listed as endangered or threatened under the Endangered Species Act. A distinct population segment is the smallest division of a species permitted to be protected under the act. An endangered species is one in danger of becoming extinct.

Atlantic sturgeon that hatch out in Gulf of Maine rivers are listed as threatened, and those that hatch out in other U.S. rivers are listed as endangered.

“The distinct population segment most common to North Carolina waters is the Carolina Distinct Population Segment, which is listed as endangered. In North Carolina, the Albemarle Sound, most likely the Roanoke River population, has between 16 and 22 adult individuals,” said Andy Herndon, biologist with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, or NOAA, Fisheries.

“Adult spawning runs of Atlantic sturgeon are still not completely understood. In rivers from Georgia to the Chesapeake Bay, scientists have confirmed that adult sturgeon spawn during the late summer and fall. In rivers from Delaware to Canada, adults spawn in the spring and early summer,” he said.

“Shortnose sturgeon live in rivers and coastal waters from Canada to Florida. They hatch in the freshwater of rivers and spend most of their time in the estuaries of these rivers. Unlike Atlantic sturgeon, shortnose sturgeon tend to spend relatively little time in the ocean. When they do enter marine waters, they generally stay close to shore. In the spring, adults move far upstream and away from saltwater, to spawn. After spawning, the adults move rapidly back downstream to the estuaries, where they feed, rest, and spend most of their time,” he said.

Currently, shortnose sturgeon are found in 41 rivers and bays along the East Coast, spawning in 19 of those rivers and comprising three “metapopulations,” or reproductively isolated groups, Herndon said. These three metapopulations include the Carolinian Province, or southern metapopulation; the Virginian Province, or mid-Atlantic metapopulation; and Acadian Province, or northern metapopulation.

In North Carolina, shortnose sturgeon are currently found in the Roanoke and Cape Fear rivers, as well as Albemarle Sound and Pamlico Sound. Shortnose sturgeon are considered rare in North Carolina waters.

As adults, Atlantic sturgeon travel extensively throughout the marine environment, mingling with fish from other distinct population segments. Juvenile and adult Atlantic sturgeon use estuaries for feeding throughout the year. Younger animals generally remain solely within the estuaries to feed and grow, while older animals may feed in the estuaries to feed before migrating. Like the shortnose sturgeon, Atlantic sturgeon swim far upstream, sometimes over 100 miles, in rivers to find rocky habitats in freshwater for spawning.

“Once they successfully spawn, the adults move quickly back downstream to the estuaries. The eggs they left behind hatch, and the larvae mature as they slowly move downstream toward the estuaries. Once they reached the estuary, the larvae are now more fully developed and considered ‘young of the year.’ They generally remain in the estuary for two to three years to continue to grow and mature before eventually heading into the marine environment,” Herndon said.

Shortnose sturgeon have a very similar life history as the Atlantic sturgeon. The primary difference is shortnose sturgeon enter the marine environment infrequently compared to Atlantic sturgeon. Shortnose sturgeon spend the majority of their lives in their natal river systems.

“Sturgeon present in North Carolina waters are bottom feeders that use their four barbels to search for food in the sandy, muddy bottom of rivers. They use a vacuum-like mouth to suck up this bottom-dwelling food, typically eating invertebrates such as insects, crustaceans, worms and mollusks. Atlantic sturgeon may even feed on bottom-dwelling fish such as sand lance,” Herndon said.

Although neither Atlantic nor shortnose sturgeon can be targeted by fishermen, threats remain that continue to affect recovery efforts. Bycatch in commercial fisheries and increased industrial uses such as hydropower, nuclear power and treated sewage discharge into coastal rivers during the 20th century became the primary barriers to Atlantic and shortnose sturgeon recovery.

The management of sturgeon in North Carolina waters is a partnership between state and federal resource managers. NOAA Fisheries has the primary lead in promoting recovery and conservation of sturgeon with respect to their listing under the federal Endangered Species Act.

The North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission is the state agency tasked with managing and conserving threatened and endangered species in North Carolina. They also play a significant role in helping to manage and conserve sturgeon.

The North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries is also a partner in the conservation of sturgeon as they collect information on the species occurrence, and work to reduce sturgeon bycatch in state fisheries. The North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries in 1991 made it illegal to possess sturgeon from North Carolina waters.

“We believe that one of the best ways to help save these amazing species is by getting the word out through outreach. Our scientists are working with students and teachers to learn more about the movements, behavior, and threats to Atlantic and shortnose sturgeons along the East Coast. The Students Collaborating to Undertake Tracking Efforts for Sturgeon (SCUTES) program provides lesson plans, educational kits, and an opportunity for classrooms to adopt a tagged sturgeon,” Herndon said.

Learn more about the SCUTES Program.

Kingfishes, a group of fish found in North Carolina waters, are members of the drum family and are cousins to other familiar species including spotted sea trot, spot, Atlantic croaker, as well as red and black drum.

If you were to hold a red drum and southern kingfish side by side and cover their bodies, only comparing the shape and size of their face and head, they could pass as fraternal twins.

There are three species of kingfish in North Carolina waters. These include, in order of importance to the region, southern, gulf and northern kingfish. They all share the common name of “sea mullet” in these parts, but depending on the region, they’re also called king whiting, king croaker, sea mink, roundhead, hard head, whiting, hake, Carolina whiting and Virginia mullet.

“These three species are medium-sized fish with slender bodies and backs that appear slightly elevated,” said Kevin Brown, North Caroline Division of Marine Fisheries kingfish biologist. “The southern kingfish are the most abundant of the three in North Carolina. They have a small mouth and a single fatty barb on the chin, as well as a cone-shaped mouth area. Their body coloration varies widely with the habitat they live in. Typically, they have a silvery gray color on top, and occasionally black and white below with dusky markings on the side that may have seven to eight vertical bars that are darker than the rest of the fish. Juveniles are generally darker than adults.

On average, kingfish will grow to about 18 inches in length.  However, the average catch in North Carolina is about 11 inches in total length, he said.

According to the Virginia Institute of Marine Science, the maximum length of southern kingfish is 23.62 inches, with an average length of 13.78 inches. Gulf kingfish are the same size as the southern variety. The northern kingfish is usually smaller with a maximum length of 15.75 inches and an average of 11.81 inches.

Kingfish become sexually mature at about one year and will spawn in offshore waters between April to October. Prevailing currents and winds carry the newly hatched larvae through the inlets into the upper reaches of local estuary nursery raising habitat where they will continue to feed and grow, seeking out progressively larger food sources and appropriate habitat.

“Northern kingfish are found from the Gulf of Maine to Florida, and northern Gulf of Mexico from Florida to Bay of Campeche. Southern kingfish can be found from Cape Cod to northern Argentina. Finally, Gulf kingfish can be observed from Chesapeake Bay to Florida, and in the Gulf of Mexico and continental coast of the Caribbean Sea,” Brown said.

In North Carolina waters, southern kingfish are by far the most abundant species of this fish. Northern kingfish are the more abundant kingfish species between Massachusetts to Virginia and can be found as far south as North Carolina, but their numbers are comparatively low verses the southern and gulf varieties. Gulf kingfish are the most abundant kingfish species in the surf zone south of Cape Hatteras and all points south, he said.

Southern kingfish prefer sandy mud to hard sand bottom habitat in shallow coastal waters, as well as in the surf zone and estuaries. Juveniles are frequently seen in brackish waters. This species feeds upon bottom-dwelling organisms, primarily worms and crustaceans.

“When they grind their teeth together, they may produce a clicking sound. Southern kingfish are mostly caught by using gill nets, bottom trawls, seine, and pound nets.  They may also be landed by recreational fishermen. Kingfish make for some tasty meals when prepared properly,” said Brown.

Gulf kingfish differ from their southern and northern cousins, preferring coastal waters over sandy and sandy mud bottoms. They can especially be found in the surf zone, especially during the juvenile stage of their development, that frequent estuaries, but are rarely found in waters with a salinity lower than 21%, he said. Like other kingfish, the gulf species also feeds on bottom-dwelling animals, primarily crustaceans and worms. This fish also produces a clicking noise by grinding their jaw and teeth together.

“Gulf kingfish are primarily caught with gill nets, bottom trawls, pound nets and seines, as well as by recreational fishermen. When landed, they are usually sold as fresh fish at supermarkets and seafood outlets,” Brown said.

Northern kingfish also live in shallow coastal waters over sand to sandy mud bottoms. You can usually find them in the surf zone and in estuaries. Juveniles will usually enter tidal rivers and creeks of less than 1% salinity. They feed on bottom-dwelling organisms, primarily crustaceans and worms. They are mainly caught with gill nets, bottom trawls, pound nets, and seines, as well as by recreational fishermen. In North Carolina there is no special fishery to take notice of with the northern variety, but they may be caught along with other members of the kingfish family.

All three species of kingfish live near and feed on the bottom. Generally speaking, kingfishes move from estuarine and nearshore ocean waters to deeper offshore waters as water temperature cools. Spawning takes place in the ocean from April to October.

Management of Kingfishes

For shrimp or crab trawls, there is a 300-pound trip limit for kingfishes south of Bogue Inlet from Dec. 1 through March 31. No other harvest limits are in place specific to kingfishes in any other fisheries.

“Commercial landings for kingfishes include southern, northern, and Gulf kingfishes combined. Landings have fluctuated historically but have been on an increasing trend since 2011,” Brown said.

In 2019, landings of 702,234 pounds increased 58% compared to 2018. Most kingfishes landed are from the ocean gill net fishery. The average landings from 2010 to 2019 were 719,992 pounds. Harvest of kingfishes is seasonal with peak landings in April and November. Peaks in landings coincide with seasonal movements of kingfishes along the Atlantic coast, said Brown.

Recreational landings of kingfishes are estimated from the Marine Recreational Information Program, or MRIP. Recreational estimates across all years have been updated and are now based on the MRIP new Fishing Effort Survey-based calibrated estimates. For more information on MRIP, visit https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/topic/recreational-fishing-data.

Recreational landings for the three species of kingfish had been on an increasing trend from 1983 until 2014. In 2015, 2016 and 2017, recreational landings declined, with 2017 having the lowest landings of 267,234 pounds since 1999. In 2019 recreational landings of 881,104 pounds reflected an increase of 54% from 2018, Brown said.

“Most kingfishes are landed from the ocean and the majority of the fish are caught from man-made structures, such as piers, jetties, or bridges or from beaches. A smaller portion of kingfishes are caught in the estuary waters of the state and the majority of those fish are harvested by anglers fishing from private vessels. Recreational harvest of kingfishes is also seasonal with most fish harvested during the spring and the fall, and lowest during the summer. Most of the recreational catch consists of kingfish from 8 to 12 inches,” he said.

Fishermen can pursue kingfish from boats, jetties and piers in the nearshore waters, usually with two-hook bottom rigs baited with bloodworms, shrimp, mole crabs or squid. Fishers can also use spec rigs or jigs to catch kingfish.

This species is frequently caught as a bycatch while fishers are pursuing weakfish.

Bluefish are found along the East Coast from Maine to Eastern Florida. They arrive in North Carolina waters in early spring, while pursuing forage species including menhaden, anchovies and Atlantic silversides as they return to nearshore waters.

Bluefish are also known as blues, snappers, choppers and Taylor blues, according to the state Division of Marine Fisheries.

This species is known for hard strikes on fishermen’s bait, and a challenging fight to land after being hooked. Bluefish have a blue-green coloration along their back, and appear silver on their sides and bottom. They have a protruding, and powerful jaw full of sharp, serrated teeth.

“The dorsal fin is divided into two sections with the first section about half as long and high as the second fin. The second dorsal is just about the same size as the anal fin. The dorsal fin is also set-back on the top of the fish to reduce drag during quick bursts of speed to catch their prey. They have a deep, forked tail that resembles that of a tuna, another indicator this fish is designed for speed,” said David Behringer, Division of Marine Fisheries bluefish biologist.

“Bluefish live to be as old as 12 years of age. This species grows quickly, and can grow up to 31 pounds and be 39 inches in length. They are able to reproduce by the time they are 2 years old. The fish will typically be between 15 to 20 inches in length at that age,” he said.

In North Carolina waters, bluefish typically grow up to 34 inches in length and weigh 19 pounds. Recreational fishing citations are given for fish weighing 15 pounds or more.

“Females can lay between 400,000 to 2 million eggs per season, depending upon their size. This species will spawn several times during the spring and summer months,” he said.

The all-tackle world record bluefish was caught off Hatteras in 1972. This fish weighed 31 pounds, 12 ounces, and was landed on Jan. 30, 1972, by fisherman, James Hussey.

“This species exhibits a behavior known as a ‘blitz.’ Large concentrations of large fish viciously attack bait fish that are near the surface, and hit them from below. This mixes the water at the surface that looks something like a washing machine during its cleaning cycle. They are voracious feeders eating practically anything they catch in their path while eating,” Behringer said.

Having been in the water filming a school of these fish while they blitz-fed on Atlantic menhaden, I remembered a story that was told to me when I first started scuba diving some 30 years earlier. You do not want to be in the water with this fish while they feed – they will attack a diver and chew right through your wetsuit. Good thing I remembered that story after I jumped into the water to record the event.

“Bluefish are opportunistic feeders and will eat Atlantic menhaden, silversides, anchovies, Atlantic croaker, spot, squid, shrimp, lobster, crabs, worms, other bluefish and many other fish species,” said Behringer.

“Billfish, tuna and sharks are usually the only predators large and fast enough to catch large adult bluefish,” he said.

Managing Bluefish

This species is included in the North Carolina Fishery Management Plan for Interjurisdictional Fisheries. Management of bluefish was passed along to the 1989 Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission and Mid-Atlantic Fishery Management Council Fishery Management Plan for compliance requirements, which allows for an annually adjusted, state-by-state commercial quota system and recreational harvest limit to reduce fishing mortality.

“Several amendments have been added over time since the adoption of the bluefish fishery management plan,” said Chris Batsavage, special assistant for Councils, North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries. “Amendment 1 allocated sector-based harvest percentages for the recreational catch of 83%, and commercial catch, of 17% of the fisheries.”

North Carolina is allocated 32.06% of the coastwide quota for bluefish, which in 2021 is about 887,000 pounds, he said.

“Each state is required to close its waters to fishing when its share of the commercial quota has been landed. The commercial quota can be increased if it is anticipated that the recreational fishery will not land their entire allocation for the upcoming year,” Batsavage explained.

Bluefish are mainly a recreational fishery, with sport fishermen catching about 87% of the total catch of this species up and down the East Coast.

“These fish will migrate depending upon the season up and down the coast, then anglers from Maine to Florida go after these animals near shoals, inlets, and rips, where they congregate to feed on big schools of food,” he added.

“The landings of recreational fishermen peaked at 163.76 million pounds in 1983, but fell sharply during the 1980s and 1990s. The average annual landings for sport fishermen between 2015 and 2019 was approximately 23 million pounds. The low point in fish being caught happened in 2018, when only 13.27 million pound of bluefish were caught along the entire East Coast,” said Batsavage.

Commercial landings of bluefish went down as well from 16.5 million pounds in 1981, to 7.3 million pounds in 1999. A state-specific catch limit was put in place in 2000.

“Since that time, commercial landings have generally declined from over 7 million pounds per year in 2009, and 2010 to less than 3 million pounds per year since 2018,” he said.

During the 2019 fishing season, the majority of bluefish were caught in North Carolina – 934,000 pounds. In New York, 595,000 pounds were caught, in Rhode Island 416,000 pounds, in Florida 214,000 pounds, in New Jersey 203,000 pounds and in Massachusetts 184,000 pounds, he said.

The recreational fishery is managed through how many fish you can have on your person, and boat in a single day, size limits and seasonal closures. Since recreational bluefish catch went down in recent years, the Mid-Atlantic Fishery Management Council and the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission implemented a 15 fish possession limit in 2001.

North Carolina increased the bluefish bag limit to 15 fish in June of that year. In 2003, the North Carolina Marine Fisheries Commission adopted a rule whereby only 5 fish of the 15 fish bag limit can be greater than 24 inches in total length.

“In 2020, the Mid-Atlantic Fishery Management Council and the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission implemented a three-fish possession limit for private anglers, and a 5-fish possession limit for the for-hire charter boats and head boat anglers. The bag limit decrease was in response to the lower recreational quota resulting from the 2019 stock assessment, which found the bluefish stock is overfished and overfishing is occurring,” said Batsavage.

Catching Bluefish

“Bluefish will hit just about anything in the water. Fishermen angling from boats, piers, bridges and the surf using cut baits fished on the bottom, or casting or trolling artificial lures, such as metal spoons, bright-colored popping lures, jerk jigger style baits and lead-headed plastic grubs,” Batsavage said.

Because of their razor-sharp teeth, bluefish should be handled with extreme care. It is strongly recommended that you place a strong, steel leader between your line and the hook to ensure the fish cannot bite through and escape, which would not fare well for the fish, or the environment.

Bluefish are lightning fast, so much fun to catch, and just as fascinating to watch them feed blitz on a school of herring during the spring and summer months.

North Carolina is home to numerous species of crustaceans and shellfish in many shapes, sizes and colors. This is our second installment taking an in-depth look at some of the more popular and interesting animals in this category that call coastal North Carolina their home. Read Part 1, NC’s Crustaceans, Shellfish Make A Big Splash.

Hard Clams, or Quahogs

Hard clams, also known as quahogs, are mollusks that can live up to 35 years and grow up to 5 inches in diameter. They are found from Newfoundland south to the Yucatán Peninsula in Central America. This species is relatively easy to tell apart from other shellfish in the region. The quahog, is more round than it is long, with the hinged side forming the top of this animal that somewhat looks like that of an imbedded comma shape.

“Hard clams in North Carolina are usually taken once when they reach three years old and at the minimum harvest size of 1 inch thick,” said Jeffrey Dobbs, hard clam biologist with the North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries.

“Landings have declined steadily since the mid-1990s. This species has seen lower water quality, and loss of habitat, which have negatively impacted the fishery. We need more detailed studies to be able to accurately determine the status of the hard clam,” he said.

“Collecting and removing these clams is similar to oysters — fishermen will use rakes or take them by hand in intertidal areas and shallow water along much of the coast. Quahogs are also taken by using bull rakes and tongs in deeper water and by dredges and ‘kick boats’ in Onslow and Carteret counties,” said Dobbs.

Bay Scallops

Bay scallops are also mollusks with a relatively short life span, and usually live from 12 to 26 months old, with an average size of between 3 to 4 inches. This species can be found from Massachusetts to the central east coast of Mexico.

This species is very easy to tell apart from all other shellfish found in North Carolina. They have distinct wavelike ridges along the entire length and width of the shell on the top and bottom sides of the animal. Their coloration also helps distinguish them from other shellfish in the area. Most bay scallops are dark tan to brown in color on one side and a lighter cream white on the other and may have a mottled color pattern running through the carapace, or shell.

“During the early life stages of a bay scallop, they will attach themselves to the blades and main stems of sea grasses, such as eel, or shoal grass. As they mature, they release from the sea grass and sink to the bottom where they will continue to grow. Unlike oysters, bay scallops do move around the bottom by opening and rapidly closing their shells from the hinge side and ‘fly’ along the sea floor,” Dobbs said.

“Environmental factors, such as sea grass health, salinity, pollution, predation and temperature play a contributing role in how many scallops may be available with annual bay scallop abundance and landings greatly changing dependent upon these factors,” he said.

This species relies heavily on the amount and quality of available seagrass habitat.

Bay scallops are filter feeding shellfish found in and around sea grass beds. Like the oyster, bay scallops produce both sex cells and will mature and spawn within their first year of their lives.

“In North Carolina, bay scallops spawn mostly from August through January and again from March through May. The larvae go through several swimming stages of development before attaching to a blade of seagrass. Upon reaching a size of approximately 1 inch, bay scallops leave the sea grass and drop to the bottom,” Dobbs explained.

“Although they can use other structures, bay scallops use seagrass beds almost exclusively and are highly dependent on this habitat for successful recruitment,” he said.

Whelks, sea birds, blue crabs and cownose rays will feed on bay scallops during different phases of their life.

“Bay scallops are considered an annual crop because they are short-lived and the abundance of their stock is determined by the numbers and survival of the incoming year class of young scallops. The abundance of North Carolina’s bay scallop stocks remain low, because of many factors that affect the stock,” said Dobbs.

“Bay scallop annual commercial landings show large fluctuations through time and are presumed to be driven by changing environmental conditions including but not limited to winter freezes, high freshwater runoff, predation and red tide disease. Bay scallops are vulnerable to overharvest because of the many factors that affecting their survival,” he said.

“Documented numbers seen in catches while sampling of this species over the past 10 years show bay scallop abundance is very low in all regions of the state. This overall low abundance is also reflected in relatively low landings when a harvest season is opened,” Dobbs added.

The fishery is currently closed due to the downward trend in available numbers of this species in coastal waters, except in Core Sound. The season opened Jan. 25 and will end March 31 in Core Sound only this year.

Spiny Lobster

There are two species of lobster found in North Carolina waters: the northern lobster, or American lobster, and the spiny lobster. American lobsters are found from Maine to Cape Hatteras. While North Carolina is the southernmost range of the northern lobster, there are rare occasions where they are caught, but usually only in the northernmost portion of the coast.

Spiny lobsters are found from North Carolina to Brazil and throughout the Caribbean. Bermuda is the northernmost extent of their range. The spiny lobster looks different from the American lobster, simply because it does not have the large cutting and crushing claws that its northern cousin is best known.

Spiny lobsters have obvious spines all over their bodies and antennae, which the later can be longer than the total body shell length of the animal.

Spiny lobsters are managed by the South Atlantic Fishery Management Council, or SAFMC, and the Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Councils, which have jurisdiction over this species from North Carolina south into the Gulf of Mexico and west through Texas waters.

“Spiny lobsters are decapod crustaceans. Lobsters have three distinctive life stages with separate ecologies and behaviors. The species is found in the western Atlantic Ocean ranging from Brazil to Bermuda,” said Steve Poland, executive assistant for councils in the North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, and representative for the SAFMC.

He explained that after hatching from fertilized eggs, lobsters spend nine to 12 months as planktonic larvae.

“These larval lobsters may be transported long distance by currents in the Caribbean Sea. The origin of the larvae that settle in the South Atlantic region is almost always the Bahamas with very little reproduction in U.S. waters,” he said.

“The larva metamorphoses into a post-larval stage. These lobsters swim towards shallow seagrass habitats and settle in algae habitats, especially those containing red algae. Adult spiny lobsters are most commonly found in coral reef habitats. Individuals are normally only seen at night. Lobsters leave their dens in the evenings to forage for food and return again before dawn,” said Poland.

Scuba divers see long trails of antennae to tail spiny lobster parading over the sand bottom during night dives. Some populations of spiny lobsters are known to undergo seasonal migrations following fall storms.

Where the spiny lobster is managed cooperatively with other jurisdictions beyond North Carolina borders, regulations have been developed for each state to follow under the fishery management plan for this species.

“North Carolina is known for producing some of the largest lobsters, which attract divers to the state from all over the region,” said Poland.

“For commercial fisheries, North Carolina’s size limit of the carapace, or shell of the animal must be greater than 3 inches. If tailing, with which you would need a permit, the tail must be at least 5.5 inches. Scuba divers must measure carapace while in water. Undersized lobster must be released unharmed immediately without removal from water,” Poland said.

In North Carolina and Georgia, there is a limit of two lobsters per person, per trip. The spiny lobster season is year-round.

North Carolina through Georgia commercial fishers are required to have a federal commercial spiny lobster permit. A federal spiny lobster tailing permit is required in all South Atlantic and Gulf federal waters.

A berried, or egg-bearing spiny lobster in or from the regulated fishing zone must be returned immediately to the water unharmed.

“For recreational fishing of spiny lobster, the size limit of the carapace, or body shell, must be greater than 3 inches. Divers must measure carapace while in water. Undersized lobster must be released unharmed immediately without removal from water.

In North Carolina, there is bag limit of two per person per trip, with a year-round season,” he said.

“Recreational harvest of spiny lobster using traps is prohibited in the federal waters of the South Atlantic. Removal of tail at sea is prohibited when landing spiny lobsters in North Carolina. No spears, hooks or piercing devices. Explosive and poisons are prohibited,” Poland concluded.

North Carolina is home to numerous species of crustaceans and shellfish, in many shapes, sizes and colors.  This is our first installment in an in-depth look at some of the more popular and interesting animals in this category that call coastal North Carolina home.

Crustaceans and shellfish do not put up a fight to catch them like most fish species. You do not need an expensive rod, reel or lures and most of them stay in the same location year-round and do not leave North Carolina waters.

So, what is their appeal? Well, thoughts of clambakes, fried, baked, stuffed and pan-seared deliciousness all come to mind.

There are six species of crustaceans and shellfish that rank as the most important to this region: shrimp, blue crab, oyster, quahog or hard shell, bay scallop and spiny lobster.

Shrimp

“While there are multiple species of shrimp found in North Carolina, three primary shrimp species make up the shrimp industry. These include brown, white and pink shrimp. All three species use low salinity estuarine waters as nursery areas, thus, their growth and survival relies heavily on healthy estuaries,” said North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries shrimp biologist, Chris Stewart.

Shrimp can grow doubling their size in a matter of weeks if conditions are ideal. As shrimp grow in size they migrate from the upper portions of the estuaries into the deeper saltier portions of rivers, and sounds, eventually returning to the ocean to spawn.

“Shrimp typically do not live very long. The maximum life expectancy of most shrimp is only about one to two years, depending on the species. Shrimp are considered an annual crop and their abundance is highly dependent on environmental conditions, particularly temperature and salinity. Both local and large-scale weather events, as well as climate change, can influence their abundance,” said Stewart.

He said that in recent years, milder winters have contributed to more abundant white shrimp in North Carolina. However, severe winters can kill overwintering white shrimp and lead to lower abundances.

“Excessive precipitation can also negatively impact shrimp, lowering salinities within the estuary, and slowing growth. Heavy rainfall associated with hurricanes and large fronts can also prematurely flush shrimp out of the upper portions of the estuaries,” Stewart said.

Locally caught shrimp are second only to blue crab in value to North Carolina fishermen. About 9.5 million pounds of shrimp were caught in the Tar Heel State during the 2019 fishing season, for worth $21.9 million. The majority of shrimp are caught by commercial shrimp trawls in rivers and sounds, but in recent years, ocean landings have increased by as much as 250%.

“Brown shrimp are primarily caught during summer months and are often referred to as ‘summer shrimp.’ While brown shrimp are caught throughout the state’s waters, the majority of their landings come from the Pamlico Sound and its adjacent waters. Brown shrimp are the fastest growing of the three species and can grow to be up to 9 inches in length. In 2019, brown shrimp only made up about 16% of the landings in 2019,” Stewart said.

White shrimp are caught by commercial and recreational fishermen throughout North Carolina’s estuarine waters during the fall, and in the ocean in the spring and winter. White shrimp spawn from March to November, peaking from April to October. During this period, trawlers will often target large gatherings of female, or “roe” white shrimp in the nearshore ocean waters, 1-3 miles off North Carolina.

“In recent years, white shrimp landings have increased substantially in the ocean during December and January, particularly off Cape Hatteras. Not only have white shrimp become more abundant due to rising water temperatures as the result of climate change, but the overall distribution of white shrimp appears to be expanding north as well,” said Stewart.

White shrimp are often referred to as “green tails” and can grow as large as 8 inches in length. In 2019, white shrimp contributed about 84% to North Carolina’s total shrimp landings.

“The third species of shrimp that is of lesser significance to commercial fishery landings are pink shrimp. This species is also known as spotted shrimp due to a dark spot usually found on its stomach,” Stewart said.

Pink shrimp spawn in the ocean from April to July, with post larvae being carried into the estuary by wind-driven currents from May through November. Pink shrimp will overwinter in North Carolina estuaries, burrowing into the bottom substrate until water temperatures rise in the spring, he said.

Pink shrimp can live up to 2 years and grow as large as 11 inches in length. Historically, pink shrimp made up about 30% of North Carolina’s shrimp landings, however, their contribution has significantly decreased since the 1990s. In 2019, pink shrimp accounted for less than 1% of North Carolina’s total shrimp harvest.

Blue Crab

The blue crab fishery is one of North Carolina’s most valuable, generating up to $100 million or more each year.

“This is a combination of dockside landings and products that are made from blue crab,” said Daniel Zapf, blue crab biologist with the North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries. “The volume of blue crabs caught yields more pounds than any other fishery in the state.” Zapf said North Carolina has accounted for about 22% of the total annual Atlantic Coast blue crab landings since 1950, the third-highest state, after Virginia, and Maryland.

Here in North Carolina, blue crabs can be found in nearly all coastal waters, but the largest numbers are found in the Albemarle-Pamlico region. Commercial fishers caught more than 22 million pounds of blue crabs in 2019, with a landed value of $24 million.

Blue crabs begin their lives as larvae in the ocean and are transported by winds into estuaries, where they settle in seagrass beds. They grow quickly during their first summer and become mature at a year or two of age. Blue crabs spawn in the spring and summer in coastal inlets. Female blue crabs can spawn several times per season, releasing up to 3 million eggs.

“Blue crabs need to shed their shell in order to grow. As crabs lose their shell, they leave their old shells with a very thin, soft shell which begins to harden several days later. These softshell crabs are delicacies that are eagerly awaited by crab lovers each season,” said Zapf.

This process may be repeated up to 25 times during a crab’s life, and they seldom live longer than 2-3 years. When conditions are right, many crabs can be produced from a comparatively small number of spawning stock.

“Blue crabs are very easy to identify from all the other species found in local waters,” Zapf said. “They are in fact, blue in coloration. An adult male crab is called a ‘jimmy’ and can be identified by the almost iridescent blue shading on his shell and claws. Adult female blue crabs are called ‘sooks,’ or a ‘she-crab’ if not fully mature.”

Female crabs can be identified by the rounded, apron-shaped shells on their undersides and red tips on their claws, which are not blue as with the male. A “sponge crab” is a mature female carrying eggs on her underside.

New regulations to help manage and sustain the blue crab fishery in North Carolina waters went into effect on May 1, 2020. These measures to reduce harvest were deemed necessary after a recent North Carolina stock assessment determined the blue crabs were overfished and overfishing was still occurring. The term, “overfished,” according to the North Carolina Marine Fisheries, means the population is too small, and “overfishing” means the removal rate is too high.

“Some of the management measures include keeping the prohibition on harvesting immature female hard crabs statewide, prohibiting the harvest of dark sponge crabs in April, prohibiting the use of crab dredges and a 5-inch minimum size limit for mature female hard crabs statewide,” said Zapf.

The plan also establishes new — and adjusts existing — crab spawning sanctuaries, where it is unlawful to set or use trawls, pots and mechanical methods for oysters or clams, or take crabs with the use of commercial fishing equipment at certain times of the year.

Eastern oyster

The Eastern, or Virginia oyster is also an important shellfish in North Carolina waters. This species comes-in at third place in importance, commercially and economically, to the state.

“Native Eastern oysters can grow to be up to 8 inches in length as adults but are more often found at sizes between 3 and 5 inches in North Carolina. The shell, which is made of two separate halves, known as valves, are smooth along the edges and oval, or elongated in shape. The shell can range from an off-white to brownish coloration,” said Joe Facendola, North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries oyster biologist.

Oysters are mollusks, and like scallops, mussels, and clams they are considered bivalves, with a shell that is hinged on one side and open on the other.

“Oysters begin their lives as small and free-swimming organisms, however, as they grow they need to find a suitable hard place to settle down and attach. Once they settle, they are unable to move from that spot. Often, they choose to settle on other living — or dead — oyster shells, and form large groups knowns as reefs. In North Carolina, oysters live and form reefs in both sub-tidal and intertidal habitat,” Facendola said.

“In good habitat, they can grow fast, and have the potential to be prolific reproducers. Each mature female can potentially generate over 100 million eggs during a spawning event,” he said.

Oysters are not only a delicious resource to be enjoyed raw, steamed, in chowders or stews and, especially in restaurants, on the half shell, but they are also a vital part of the ecosystem in coastal North Carolina.

The reefs that oysters form provide food and shelter to hundreds of other species, many of them also commercially and recreationally important to the state. Healthy oyster reefs also help North Carolina’s coastal communities by filtering the waters and providing shorelines protection from heavy waves and storms.

“The minimum size limit for both commercial and recreational harvest of oyster in North Carolina, is a shell length of 3 inches. Oysters grow at various rates in the different coastal waterbodies, but they typically reach this minimum size at 3 years of age,” said Facendola.

This species has been in decline for the past 100 years in local waters. Increased pressure from commercial and recreational fishing and downward trends attributed to disease, decreased water quality and loss of vital habitat has hurt what was an historically robust oyster fishery in North Carolina.

Oysters can be commercially and recreationally taken from Oct. 15 to March 31 with rakes, tongs or by hand, and they are also harvested commercially in shorter highly monitored dredge fisheries in sections of the Pamlico Sound, Facendola said.

The North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries closely monitors water quality in the shellfish waters of the state and may issue temporary or permanent closures to the harvest of oysters and clams. Facendola recommends that anybody who is interested in harvesting oysters check the division website for the most current shellfish closures, as well as to access information on the division’s oyster rehabilitation efforts.

Next: Bivalves and other cool crustaceans in North Carolina waters.

When I first think of saltwater bass, striped bass immediately come to mind.

I never would have thought as a young scuba diver some 40 years ago that I would be swimming with and taking pictures of a relatively unknown ocean bass called the black sea bass.

This species is breathtaking and can be observed in a variety of color patterns. The flowing fins make me think I am swimming underwater with royalty.

Black sea bass are found from the Gulf of Maine south to the Gulf of Mexico. This species is made up of two genetically separate stocks, with Cape Hatteras as the border between the two. Because of the divide and two unique populations, black sea bass are divided north and south of Cape Hatteras and managed separately.

In North Carolina, this species is also known as blackfish, Atlantic sea bass, bass, rock bass, old humpback and pinbass. They are sometimes confused with black drum, bank sea bass and rock sea bass.

“Bigger fish are usually black, while smaller specimens look like they are a dusky brown. Visible scales are paler, making the black sea bass appear as if it is barred with a lot of dots appearing along the full length of the fish. The bottom of the sea bass is lighter in color than its sides,” said McLean Seward, fisheries biologist with the North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries.

The fins are dark and the dorsal, or top fin, has a series of white bands and spots. The upper part of the caudal, or tail fin, ends with filaments trailing off the back of the tail.

I have seen black sea bass with a wide array of body color, and marking configurations while scuba diving. The only definitive way to positively identify this bass from other South Atlantic sea bass is that all ages of the fish, both male and female, will always have white margins, or markings on the top and bottom of the tail, or caudal fin.

No other saltwater bass in the Atlantic Ocean has the same white markings on their tails.

“In North Carolina, black sea bass will live in and around multi-shaped, hard-bottomed areas, including shipwrecks and reefs. In South Atlantic waters, they are usually found closer to shore, with other tropical reef fish, such as snappers, groupers, porgies and grunts,” said Seward.

Juvenile black sea bass will live in the high-salt, brackish waters of estuaries during the summer months.

During spawning season, males develop an obvious blue hump at the back of their heads on their necks.

“This species of fish are protogynous intersex, meaning that most black sea bass begin their lives as females, and as they grow, and mature they will become males. Scientists are not really sure why this happens, but one educated guess suggests that where males are far less numerous in a spawning group that may be the trigger for a female to switch sex,” said National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration research fisheries biologist Jennifer Potts.

“Black sea bass will spawn from February through May in North Carolina waters south of Cape Hatteras. Fifty percent of females reach sexual maturity by the time they are 1 year old, and around 5-6 inches in length. Fifty percent of females will make the transition to males, and males when they are 4 years old, and approximately 11 inches long,” said Seward.

When spawning, males seek out schools of females to mate with and aggressively defend their territory, similar to freshwater bass. Depending on their size, females can produce between 30,000 and 500,000 eggs in a spawning season.

“This species grows slowly, and 50% are able to reproduce by the time they reach between 1 and close to 100% by 3 years of age. Females can live to be up 8 years old, while males can live to be up to 12 years old. The South Atlantic Fisheries Management Council, and North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries states their maximum age is approximately 20 years old, however fish over the age of 9 are rare,” Seward said.

Little skate, spiny dogfish, monkfish, spotted hake and summer flounder all consider black sea bass as their meal.

“Seasonal inshore, and offshore migrations take place along the northern part of the black sea bass’s range above Cape Hatteras north through the Gulf of Maine,” Seward said.

This species will feed on whatever is available, but they prefer worms, crabs, shrimp, clams and other small fish.

Black sea bass can grow up to 24 inches in total length, and weigh as much as 6 pounds. The North Carolina state record is an 8-pound, 12-ounce specimen caught off the Oregon Inlet in 1979.

“NOAA Fisheries, the mid-Atlantic Fishery Management Council and the Atlantic State Marine Fisheries Commission cooperatively manage the black sea bass fishery north of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina,” said Chris Batsavage, special assistant for councils, North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, and division representative to the mid-Atlantic Fishery Management Council, or MAFMC, and Atlantic State Marine Fisheries Commission, or ASMFC.

NOAA and the South Atlantic Fishery Management Council, or SAFMC, manage the black sea bass fishery south of Cape Hatteras, he added.

“South of Cape Hatteras, the federal bag limit of black sea bass is seven fish per person, per day. Minimum fish size is 13 inches in total length, not including the filament tail extension. North of Cape Hatteras, the federal possession limit, or bag limit, of black sea bass is 15 fish per person, per day. Minimum fish size is 12.5 inches in total length, not including the filament tail extension,” said Batsavage.

“The federal recreational fishing seasons for black sea bass are Feb. 1-28, and May 15 through Dec. 31,” he said. This is for areas north of Cape Hatteras.

“The commercial fishery for black sea bass north of Cape Hatteras is managed with quotas, trip limits, gear restrictions, and minimum size limit of 11 inches total length,” said Batsavage.

“Commercial fishing of black sea bass incorporates purchase, and sale limitations after a commercial quota cloture. Seasonal commercial black sea bass closures take place under the snapper-grouper fishery of the SAFMC,” said Steve Poland, executive assistant to councils, North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries.

Commercial fishing south of Cape Hatteras has different rules and regulations under management of the SAFMC, for all areas south of Cape Hatteras.

“Commercial fishing in this region has a minimum size limit of 11 inches total length. There is a limited access permit that is required, and there is an endorsement required to fish with sea bass pots,” said Poland.

“For commercial fishing with hook and line, there is a 1000-pound gutted weight, or 1,180-pound whole weight from May 1 through Dec. 31, and a 300-pound gutted weight, or 354-pound whole weight from Jan. 1 through April 30,” he said.

Fishing with pots has a trip limit of 1,000 pounds gutted weight, or 1,180-pound whole weight. From Nov. 1-30 and April 1-30 each year, it is illegal to use pots in order to possess, or harvest this species nearshore, of approximate depths shallower than 25 meters, or 82.02 feet.

From Dec. 1 through March 31 each year, it is unlawful to use pots to harvest or possess black sea bass inshore of approximate depths shallower than 30 meters, or 98.4 feet.

“Recreational fishing south of Cape Hatteras has a seven fish per person, per day bag limit, with a maximum total length of 13 inches,” said Poland.

“The fishing year for recreational fisherman is now between April 1 through March 31 this year, and open until the annual catch has been met, or projected to be met. NMFS will project the length of the recreational fishing season based on when the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) projects the recreational ACL (annual catch limit) is expected to be met,” Poland said.

The commercial fishing year is from January through December, and it is open all year unless the commercial annual catch limit is met.

“All fish must be landed with heads and fin intact. The use of de-hooking tools when fishing for snapper grouper species is required under current laws. Fishermen are required to use non-stainless-steel circle hooks, either offset, or non-offset is required for all species in the snapper-grouper complex when using a hook and line gear with natural baits,” he said.

Black sea bass are fun to catch, taste great to eat, and more importantly bring some royalty and class to the sea bottom community.

In this second of a two-part look at sea jellies and their relatives found in North Carolina waters, we’ll examine the world of siphonophores and ctenophores.

Siphonophores are hydrozoans and include the threateningly named and potentially dangerous Portuguese man-of-war.

“The Portuguese man-of-war is actually a colony of zooids (small animals) that work together for survival,” said North Carolina Aquarium Education Curator Dia Hitt. “This is called a siphonophore. The tentacles have venom-filled structures called nematocysts on them that they use to capture prey. Unfortunately, these structures can also cause a powerful sting in people. They are not considered jellyfish since they are not one animal but many. They don’t have a propulsion system; instead, they are at the mercy of the wind and the currents, which is why some years we see them and other seasons we don’t.”

Hitt said the number of Portuguese men-of-war seen during a season depends on the storm tracks and the winds and waves, or swells, they generate.

“We can go without any all season or we may get several episodes,” said Karen Duggan, interpretive park ranger at Cape Lookout National Seashore. “The number coming ashore will vary and it is often really hard to estimate as we have four individual islands — two are about 20 miles in length, one is about 9 miles in length and the last is only a mile or two.”

Comb jellies

The pink comb jelly is a member of a group of gelatinous zooplankton called ctenophores, which do not swim like true jellyfish. They do not contract and relax the bell, or top of the jelly, for propulsion. Rather, ctenophores rely on eight rows of hair-like structures called cilia that move in a wavelike pattern and slowly propel this animal through the water.

The pink comb jelly is about the size of a golf ball, lacks lobes like a true jellyfish and, as the name implies, tends to be pinkish and sometimes brownish in color.

This species is longer than it is wider in shape, sealed on the top and open at the bottom. Its rows of cilia give off a rainbow spectrum of color when struck by a light source, such as a dive light or camera flash.

During spring and summer months, comb jellies, like moon jellyfish, congregate in huge numbers in coastal waters. I have had to gently push several out of the way to get a photo of a single animal.

Comb jellies’ range in the Atlantic is from the Arctic to the Mediterranean Sea in the east, and from Maine to Florida in the Western Atlantic.

Comb jellies are predators that feed in large gatherings, or swarms. Its cilia not only propel but also function by creating a feeding current that delivers fish eggs, fry, copepods and other tiny zooplankton to be eaten.

Another interesting ctenophore is the sea gooseberry. These are much smaller that their larger cousin the pink comb jelly and have two tentacles that hang down beyond the bottom of the animal.

The clear, transparent body has a slightly oval shape about 1 inch in diameter. Like all comb jellies, the sea gooseberry has eight rows of cilia.

Though small, this voracious predator with its tentacles that can be up to 20 inches long, feeds on eggs, larvae, small mollusks, arthropods and almost anything else that it can catch.

The tentacles can be withdrawn inside the body and have sticky filaments all over that almost guarantees success in capturing prey. Once caught in those tentacles, it’s almost impossible for any prey to escape.

True jellies and comb jellies also differ in that the comb jellies have no venom to paralyze their prey.

Sea gooseberries are considered intersex, meaning they have both male and female organs. Eggs and sperm are released into the water at the same time when fertilization takes place. They can live in depths ranging from just under the surface down to as much as 656 feet.

Sea walnuts

Quite common in North Carolina, the population of this jelly soars seasonally, usually during summer months, but they are usually around the North Carolina coast year-round.

Sea walnuts are shaped like their name implies, like the shell of a walnut. As adults, they do not have tentacles, and can grow to several inches in length. Sea walnuts are yet another species of comb jelly and have the same “light show” qualities and method of propulsion.

Sea walnuts are typically transparent or white. They can produce light when disturbed and can be seen flashing brightly in the waves of passing boats at night, similar to waving a hand through the water and seeing green bioluminescence.

This animal is also found in almost every ocean on Earth.

Many-ribbed jellies

The many-ribbed jelly is saucer-shaped with a well-developed bell. The top of the bell is called the velum and is a membrane that points inward from the margin of the bell. These jellies can be identified by the 80 or more narrow, unbranched radial canals, or rows, that extend all the way to the margin of the bell.

According to Walla Walla University, the slender gonads run along most of the length of the radial canals and do not hang down. Gonads are bluish in males, rosy in females. They have one to several unbranched tentacles for each radial canal. All tentacles hang from the margin of the bell. The tentacles are in a single row around the margin of the bell, can be extended long or held very tightly inside the bell. These tentacles are irregular in size.

The bell can have a diameter of more than 3 inches with ruffled edges and is usually transparent. They range from Texas to Maine and east to the Mediterranean Sea. They are typically seen nearshore.

Many-ribbed jellies feed mainly on gelatinous plankton such as other hydromedusae, ctenophores, polychaetes and appendicularians. It may occasionally be cannibalistic, and also eat larval fish such as Atlantic herring.

This species is also bioluminescent and may flash brightly when disturbed.

Blue buttons

The blue button is not really a jelly at all. They are actually a hydroid and, like the Portuguese men-of-war, are colonial animals made up of individual zooids, each specialized for a different purpose such as eating, reproduction or defense.

This species can be quite small, measuring only about an inch in diameter, but can grow to be as large as several inches across. They are made up of a hard golden-brown, gas-filled float in the center surrounded by blue, purple or yellow hydroids, which look like tentacles. The tentacles have stinging cells called nematocysts. Blue button jellies are found in warm waters off Europe, in the Gulf of Mexico, Mediterranean Sea, New Zealand and in southern U.S. waters, including North Carolina.

These hydroids live on the ocean surface and are frequently blown to shore by the thousands. Blue buttons eat plankton and other small marine life. They rely on prevailing currents and winds to move around the ocean and are often prey for sea slugs and sea snails.

By-the-wind sailors

Finally, and again, not really a jelly, the by-the-wind sailor is a hydroid polyp that floats at the surface of the Atlantic Ocean for most of its life. It’s only ever completely submerged during its larval stage.

This species begins life in the middle of the ocean, is brought in closer to shore by the wind, and is typically blown up on a beach where it dies and then disintegrates.

This jelly is most common on the high seas, in the warmer regions of the Southern and Northern hemispheres.

The by-the-wind sailor is sometimes mistaken as a smaller version of the larger Portuguese man-of-war with its cellophane-like floats and erect triangular sail. The sail is blue to purple in color with a flat oval, transparent balloon, or float. The angle of the sail is such that the by-the-wind sailor can take best advantage of the wind. This species may have sails oriented from left to right or right to left.

In late spring and early summer, they arrive on the North Carolina beaches.

The joy of diving

Jellyfish are the coolest critters I have ever had the opportunity to dive with and photograph.

They are another reason that we call scuba diving a sport that takes you into “inner space.” Swimming and breathing with fish and invertebrates is my way of feeling like an astronaut, but instead of being in outer space, I’m underwater!

First in a two-part series 

Jellyfish are some of the coolest looking creatures that live in North Carolina’s waters. Found in all coastal areas of the state, there’s a dozen different species that can be observed at various times of year while swimming, scuba diving, snorkeling or simply walking along the beach.

There are two types of jellyfish, or gelatinous zooplankton in North Carolina — true jellyfish and comb jellies, or ctenophores. True jellyfish pump water for propulsion by using the bell on top of their bodies to first contract and then relax their bodies to move water, hence pushing themselves forward in the water column.

Comb jellies do not pump water to get around. Instead, they have eight rows of hair-like structures called cilia all around the outside of their bodies. By moving the cilia in a wavelike pattern, they slowly move through the water column.

There are several species of marine jellyfish found in North Carolina waters. The first group belongs to the class Scyphozoa, and are considered to be “true jellyfish,” or “jellies.”

Lion’s mane

The largest species in North Carolina waters is the lion’s mane jellyfish. This species is easy to identify, as it is the only jellyfish that is orange in color in the typical size range of 6 to 12 inches across at the bell.

This species is also known as the winter jelly, because it prefers the colder waters along the North Carolina coast after the Gulf Stream has moved farther offshore during winter months. Lion’s manes are usually considered moderate stingers, and symptoms of a sting are similar to that of a moon jelly, but with a little more discomfort.

It is the largest known jellyfish species in the world. Its name was inspired by its showy, trailing tentacles that resemble an African lion’s mane.

The largest specimen of lion’s mane jellyfish ever caught was found on a beach in Massachusetts Bay in 1870. Its bell measured 7 feet, 6 inches across, and its tentacles were 120 feet long. I would not want to meet up with this guy underwater.

The lion’s mane uses its stinging tentacles to capture, pull in and eat with a diet of fish and smaller jellyfish that get too close to the tentacles. Its nematocysts, or stinging cells, are not known to be fatal to humans, however, the sting location will be reddish in appearance and rather painful.

Seabirds, all sea turtles, giant ocean sunfish and other jellyfish species will feed on lion’s mane jellies.

Sea nettles

The second-largest jellyfish is the sea nettle. Sea nettles are quite common, being found in tropical and subtropical parts of the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans.

Sea nettles are carnivorous — they will feed on ctenophores and other jellyfish as well as crustaceans. Its mouth is in the center of its body near the bell and opens to a stomach-like organ used for digestion.

This species is semitransparent, with small white dots and reddish-brown stripes. Its sting is considered to range from moderate to severe and is fatal to small prey. It is not strong enough to kill humans.

Sea turtles, ocean sunfish and larger jellyfish prey on sea nettles.

Moon jellies

One of the more otherworldly jellyfish is the moon jellyfish. These look like underwater flying saucers.

Moon jellyfish are most common during the summer months from early June to September, when they appear in harbors and bays, looking like a wall-to-wall blanket so thick at times it appears you can walk across them.

This translucent species averages about 6 to 8 inches in diameter at the bell. Larger specimens have been known to grow as large as 20 inches across. They have 4 horseshoe-shaped gonads in the center of the bell and short tentacles.

Moon jellyfish feed on medusae, plankton and mollusks with their tentacles and bring the food back into their body for digestion.

They are only able to move slightly by themselves and rely more on ocean currents even when swimming by pulsing and relaxing their bell.

Moon jellies breathe oxygen from surrounding waters by way of a thin membrane that covers the tops of their bodies.

Moon jellies are a frequent snack for ocean sunfish and sea turtles.

Cannonballs, or cabbagehead

The most common jellyfish found in North Carolina is the cannonball, which is also known as the cabbagehead jelly or jellyballs. During summer and fall, large gatherings of this jelly take place near coastal areas and in the mouths of North Carolina estuaries.

While this species is the most abundant jelly, it is also the least harmful to humans. It has the weakest sting of all jellies found in local waters. Easy to identify by their white bell with chocolate-brown bands, they have no tentacles, just fingerlike appendages hanging down from the bell.

Mushrooms

Mushroom jellies are commonly mistaken for cannonballs, but they lack the brown bands of the cannonball. But this species is similarly harmless to humans, with a mild sting, if felt at all.

According to the Virginia Institute of Marine Science, the mushroom jelly has a firm and dense swimming bell, however its bell is usually flatter than that of the cannonball. The bell does have arms grow down from the center. An adult can have a bell to up to 20 inches across at the widest point.

The bell may be creamy white to light yellow, brown, blue, pink or green. The arms might have yellowish, or brown markings.

Sea wasps

The sea wasp jelly is the most dangerous to humans, and the most venomous of all true jellies found in North Carolina waters. Its sting can give quite the jolt followed by a severe skin rash. A sting may lead to a trip to the hospital, depending on the reaction severity. If stung in the face or neck area, it’s best to seek medical help as soon as is possible.

“There are two possibilities of sea wasps possibly found here: Tamoya haplonemaand, and Chiropsalmus quadrumanous,” said Paul Mazzel, marine science educator at the North Carolina Aquarium Roanoke Island. “While they’re in the same class, I think it’s important to refer to them as ‘sea wasps’ to distinguish them from the highly deadly box jellies of Australia.”

Next: Ctenophores

Grouper are large, fat-bodied fish with huge mouths and will eat just about anything they can fit in those choppers.

While there are several species of grouper off the East Coast, two stand out in North Carolina: gag and red grouper, the most important for North Carolina commercial and recreational fishermen.

“Adult gag grouper live in nearshore waters from coastal North Carolina south to Brazil and as well as in the Gulf of Mexico. Red grouper can be found as far north as Massachusetts to southeastern Brazil, (including) the eastern Gulf of Mexico,” said Barry Nash, seafood technology and marketing specialist with North Carolina Sea Grant.

Nash said red grouper have an average life span of 30 years and can be as long as 49 inches, while gag grouper can reach 58 inches in length. Red grouper weigh an average of 51 pounds while gag grouper can get as big as 81 pounds, he said.

Gag grouper have a long, compressed body and 11 to 14 rays in its anal fin. Their coloration varies widely and changes with the size and age of the fish. Large gag are dark brownish-gray on top, and paler to white on the bottom. Gag also have traces of dark, wavy markings on their sides. Smaller gag are a lot lighter in coloring, and have numerous dark brown, or charcoal, kiss-like marks along their sides.

The species has deeply notched gill covers, which is how you can tell them apart from black grouper.

“Adult gag grouper, live over on top of low- and high-profile hard bottom such as reefs or shipwrecks in waters between 60-250 feet deep,” said McLean Seward, fisheries biologist with the North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries.

“Young gag grouper will live in oyster reefs, estuaries and sea grass beds from Massachusetts to Cape Canaveral, Florida. They frequently hang around rocky ledges and swim in small schools,” he said.

Gag grouper are sometimes misidentified as black grouper and scamp.

“Red grouper are easy to tell apart from gag grouper due to their large mouth, with a lower jaw sticking out slightly forward from the upper jaw. The coloration of red grouper helps to distinguish this species from gag with its head and body being dark reddish brown, shading pink or reddish or even pale pink along the lower part of its body,” Nash said.

“In North Carolina, gag will typically spawn in February and have clear larvae, which then make their way into estuaries. As water temperatures start to go down in the fall, juvenile gag will migrate from estuaries to offshore hard bottom habitat and larger members of their species,” said Seward.

“Red grouper typically will spawn from March through July,” Nash said.

Seward noted that all grouper are considered protogynous intersex, “that is they start their lives as females, and a part of the population will morph, or make the change, to males as they get older.

Females start to reach sexual maturity when they are about 24 inches in total length and about 3 years old. At this size and age, 50% of females are sexually mature, he said.

By the time they are about 32 inches in length and 6 years old, all females are sexually mature. By the time they are between 10 and 11 years old, and about 39 inches in total length, females can turn into males. Most gag over 45 inches total lengths are male.

The oldest know gag grouper was 26 years old. They can grow to about 58 inches total length and will weigh up to 81 pounds. They are voracious predators, and will feed on whatever they can capture including scad, snapper, grunt, sardines, crabs, porgies, shrimp and squid, said Seward.

In addition to their color, red grouper can be distinguished from gag by the sloped, straight line of their spiny dorsal fin. The dorsal fin has a long second spine. Most have a notched dorsal spine membrane and a third spine longer than the second.

“Red grouper has a deep brownish-red coloration overall, with scattered white spots on their sides. They also have tiny black specks on their cheeks,” said Seward.

Red grouper is found from Brazil north to North Carolina waters, including the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean. There are more red grouper from Florida’s east and west coasts, and throughout the Gulf of Mexico.

Red grouper live in and around ledges, caverns and crevices of rocky limestone reefs and lower-profile, live-bottom areas in waters 10 to 40 feet deep, and can be found down to depths of at least 300 feet.

“The red grouper is also a protogynous intersex and females are sexually mature by the time they reach 4 years old,” Seward said.

Spawning takes place from March to July. Females typically will let go an average of 1.5 million pelagic eggs that stay at the surface for between 30-40 days before finally settling down to the bottom. The species is soniferous, meaning that they make sounds that are probably tied to spawning activity.

“Red grouper may live to be as old as 25 years of age, with older specimens reaching a size of 32.5 inches and up to 25 pounds. Red grouper usually ambush their prey and swallow it hole. They will feed on lobster, shrimp, octopus, crabs and fish that are found close to their preferred reef habitat,” Seward said.

Red grouper are most closely related to Nassau grouper, which have several vertical bars and blotches, are more commonly found on coral reefs in the West Indies and are relatively rare in North Carolina waters. Nassau grouper are listed as threatened on the Endangered Species List, and it is illegal to target this species.

Bottom fishing is the best way to catch gag grouper, using live bait, including squid and cigar minnows. Use a depth finder to find deep-water rock ledges, artificial reefs and shipwrecks, a gag grouper’s favorite hiding place.

There is a 24-inch total length minimum requirement for possessing gag grouper and a trip limit of 1,000 pounds gutted weight, or 1,180-pound whole weight, until 75% of the annual catch limit is met or is projected to be met. After the quota has been met there is a trip limit is 500 pounds gutted weight, or 590 pounds whole weight.

An annual shallow-water grouper spawning season closure runs Jan. 1-April 30 in federal waters off the coasts of North Carolina and South Carolina, with the exception of red grouper, for which the season remains closed until June 1.

Shallow-water grouper include scamp, red grouper, black grouper, red hind, coney, yellowfin grouper, grasby and yellowmouth grouper.

All fish need to be landed with head and fins intact. Recreational and commercial fishermen are required to use dehooking tools when fishing for the snapper grouper species. The use of non-stainless-steel circle hooks, either offset or non-offset, is required for all species in the snapper grouper complex when using hook-and-line gear with natural baits in waters north of 28 degrees north latitude.

After the commercial annual catch limit is met, all purchase and sale are illegal and harvest and/or possession is limited to the recreational bag limit while recreational harvest is open.

“This prohibition does not apply to fish harvested, landed and sold before the annual catch limit is reached and held in cold storage by a dealer,” said North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries Executive Assistant to Councils Steve Poland, who is also a representative with the South Atlantic Fishery Management Council.

Charter and head boat and commercial snapper grouper vessels must have National Marine Fisheries Service-approved sea turtle release gear and adhere to smalltooth sawfish release protocol, Poland added.

The red grouper is a different story all together. While populations of gag grouper have remained healthy, a 10-year effort to rebuild the red grouper stock has failed, leading to new, stricter rules and regulations taking effect this year.

In 2010, a Southeast Data, Assessment and Review, or SEDAR, benchmark assessment, SEDAR 19, was completed for South Atlantic red grouper.

Based on the results of SEDAR 19, the National Marine Fisheries Service determined that red grouper was overfished and undergoing overfishing. Amendment 24 to the Fisheries Management Plan established a 10-year rebuilding plan that began in 2011, with an end date of 2020.

A stock assessment update, SEDAR 53, for red grouper was completed in February 2017 using data through 2015. SEDAR 53 indicated the stock was still overfished and undergoing overfishing, and that stock rebuilding would not be possible by 2020.

Therefore, on Sept. 27, 2017, NMFS sent a letter to the council stating that the South Atlantic red grouper stock was not making adequate progress toward rebuilding.

The Magnuson-Stevens Act requires the implementation of management measures to end overfishing immediately and revise or implement a rebuilding plan within two years of notification by NMFS to the council of this stock status. So, NMFS took steps in 2018 to immediately end overfishing of red grouper by reducing the total commercial and recreational annual catch limits, based on the acceptable biological catch recommendation from the council’s Scientific and Statistical Committee.

Continued harvest at the levels specified in Abbreviated Framework Amendment 1 is expected to allow for rebuilding the red grouper stock within 10 years, but because the red grouper stock is not projected to fully rebuild by 2020 (SEDAR 53), the council must also

revise the current rebuilding plan so the stock rebuilds in the time frame mandated by the Magnuson-Stevens Act. Regulatory Amendment 30 addresses the revision to the rebuilding Plan.

“For red grouper, this final rule extends the closure season formerly from January to April, to January through May of each year for the next ten years for the commercial and recreational portions off North and South Carolina, and establishes a commercial trip limit,” said Poland.

There is currently no commercial trip limit for red grouper in the South Atlantic. This final rule establishes a commercial trip limit for red grouper harvested in the South Atlantic EEZ of 200 pounds, gutted weight. The trip limit is expected to help rebuild the red grouper stock by discouraging directed commercial fishing for the species, although it is not likely to substantially reduce the current level of commercial harvest of red grouper, according to the National Register.

“The council selected a commercial trip limit that in combination with extending the spawning season cloture for red grouper off North Carolina and South Carolina would help keep down harvest numbers to help rebuild the stock,” Poland said.

Cobia is one strange looking fish.

In some ways they look like a shark. In other ways, they resemble a hitchhiking upside-down parasite taking a free ride on the bottom of a shark, the remora. This species hangs around the Chesapeake Bay during summer months and migrates south, off the coast of North Carolina, during the fall to make for some fun fishing with some pretty large fish.

Cobia are known by many names around the world including ling, sergeant fish, lemonfish and crab eater. In North Carolina waters they are often referred to as ling or crab eater.

This species has a long, torpedo-shaped body with a lengthy, depressed head. Their eyes are small in relationship to the size of their bodies, and the snout, or nose, is broad. Their lower jaw sticks out farther than the upper jaw.

“Cobias have a horizontal stripe from the tail through their eye. Their coloration is typically dark brown in color, but is variable depending upon what part of the world they live in. They also have blotches of orange, bronze and green,” said Anne Markwith, fisheries biologist with the North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries.

This fish is often mistaken for a shark or a shark sucker because of the shape and size of their bodies.

Cobia are known to live up to 10 years and reach a length of 6 feet and weight more than 100 pounds.

“North Carolina is home to both the state and world record cobia that was caught on June 11, 2006, off the Outer Banks that weighed 116.5 pounds. The catch has been accepted by the International Game Fish Association as a World Record in the 80-pound line class,” she said.

This fish is an open ocean, or pelagic, animal that typically swims alone, except when spawning. They are found off the United States from Maine south and throughout the Gulf of Mexico in both inshore and nearshore waters of the inlets and bays.

“Cobia usually reach sexual maturity by 3 years of age — generally 2.5 feet long, fork length — with males maturing earlier than females. Females grow to be larger than males and may reach 6 feet and weigh up to 100 pounds,” said Markwith.

On the Atlantic coast, cobia move into nearshore waters when water temperatures reach between 68-77 degrees Fahrenheit. While gathering in larger numbers inshore, they spawn over a period of four to six weeks.

“Spawning is specific to their location, with at least two genetically distinct spawning populations living within the Atlantic stock, one in Virginia and the other in South Carolina. The timing of local spawning will move up the coast as temperatures begin to warm, with peak spawning in May for South Carolina, June for North Carolina and July for Virginia,” she said.

“Females will reach maturity, and able to spawn when they reach about 3 years of age. Cobias grow quickly during their first two years of life,” Markwith said.

Cobia are batch spawners, meaning a female may spawn several times, about every four to six days during the spawning season.

“Cobia will migrate depending upon the season and will spend the winter months in the south or offshore and moving north and inshore during the summer. They are drawn to solid structure such as shipwrecks and reefs to feed and find shelter from predators,” she said.

The North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries is using satellite tags on cobia to track where and how they migrate and learn more about the general biology of this species while off the North Carolina coast.

Adults and young cobia are usually found around natural and human-made structures including mangrove roots, reefs, buoys, shipwrecks, shelves, as well as flotsam and seaweed mats.

“Cobias are opportunistic feeders that will prey upon some species of fish, including eel and mackerel, but most of their diet is made up of crustaceans, including shrimp, and crabs,” said Markwith.

“These fish are sought after by recreational fishermen, and cobia supports recreational fisheries throughout the South Atlantic and into the mid-Atlantic region. The main way anglers will catch this fish include bottom fishing with natural bait and sight-casting, which has gained popularity recently,” said Chris Batsavage, fisheries biologist, and special assistant for councils, North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries.

The annual recreational catch of Atlantic cobia has increased since the 1980s, with increases to numbers of fish recreationally harvested and those caught and released.

“In 2018, recreational anglers landed an estimated 113,939 cobia and released 367,129 individual cobia. Recreational harvest is managed by enforcing a one-fish-per-person bag limit, 36-inch fork-length minimum size limit and state-specific seasons and vessel limits,” he said.

The commercial fishery is a lot smaller, only landing 50,314 pounds in 2018. Mostly the commercial fishery is a bycatch fishery. It has been associated with the snapper/grouper hook and line fishery and troll fisheries for many South Atlantic species, although more commercial fisheries that target cobia have recently developed in some areas. Cobia are also accidentally caught in ocean gillnet fisheries that target king and Spanish mackerel.

“Commercial harvests are managed through a coastwide two-fish-per-person possession limit set by the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission, a six-fish vessel limit and a 33-inch fork-length minimum size limit. States from Georgia through New York are able to make additional restrictions to their individual fisheries, and some have started to use a 36-inch fork-length commercial minimum size limit, matching the recreational fishery’s limit,” said Batsavage.

The best way to catch cobia is by using sight casting with bucktails as they move along the East Coast. North Carolina is a popular fishing destination for cobia by fishermen who fish along the bottom with bait. You can also catch cobia while trolling for king mackerel, and keeping your bait close to the bottom with cut, or live bait near reefs, inlets and shipwrecks.

Frequently, fishermen will see cobias hanging around a navigation aid or inlet buoy. Another fun way to catch cobias is by using a fly rod and reel.

“Under North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries Proclamation FF-15-2020, it is illegal to possess a cobia less than 36 inches fork length and to possess more than one cobia per person per day,” Batsavage said.

The recreational fishing season for cobia under this proclamation runs from May 1 through Dec. 31, while the commercial season opened on Jan. 1 and remains open until the quota is caught.

“Private vessels have a different set of regulations to follow. From May 1-May 31, 2020, it is illegal to possess more than two cobias per vessel per day, or one cobia per person per day, if there is only one person onboard,” he said.

From June 1 through Dec. 31, it is illegal to possess more than one cobia per vessel per day, period.

For-hire vessels follow the same fishing season from May 1 through Dec. 31, but are limited to not more than four cobias per vessel per day, or one cobia per person per day, if fewer than four people are onboard.

“Fishing commercially for cobia brings with it a third set of rules that must be followed, said Batsavage.

In this case it is against the law to possess cobia that are less that 36 inches fork length. Commercial fishers cannot have in their possession more than two cobias per person per day, or six per vessel per day, whichever is more restrictive in a commercial operation, Batsavage said.

The name false albacore triggers an immediate reaction from local fishermen – fun!

This species of tuna-like fish puts up an amazing fight once hooked, but by prolonging the battle, you may also greatly reduce its survivability back in the sea. This species is easy to identify from its closest cousin, the bonito.

False albacore is known by many names around the world, including Atlantic bonito, little tunny, Atlantic little tuna, Atlantic little tunny, bone eater and mackerel tuna.

In North Carolina they are often called little tunny, which are found from the Gulf of Mexico north through the temperate and tropical waters of the Atlantic Ocean as far north as the south side of Cape Ann, Massachusetts. Little tunny is also caught globally in the Mediterranean and Black seas.

Little tunny is one of the most common members of the mackerel/tuna family found in North Carolina waters.

False albacore is tuna shaped, with a steel-blue coloration on top and primarily silver on the bottom. They have wavelike stripes along the posterior parts of their backs and dark spots below the pectoral fin just behind the gill plate, said Anne Markwith, fisheries biologist with the North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries.

“Until 2011, false albacore was part of the South Atlantic Fishery Management Council’s Coastal Migratory Pelagics Fishery Management Plan,” she said.

Both the regional management council and the federal government dropped little tunny from their plans that year.

“Based on the information available at that time, false albacore did not seem to meet the federal national standard guidance for stocks in need of conservation and management,” she said.

Markwith prepared a memorandum published in 2017 to the North Carolina Marine Fisheries Commission on false albacore, because there was still no state or federal management measure in place for the species.

In addition, the Mid-Atlantic Fishery Management Council did not include false albacore in its unmanaged forge (fish) amendment in 2016 because of their large size and higher trophic level, or place in the food chain, the memorandum stated.

“Due to high public concern for the species, particularly from the recreational fishery, council staff recommended that the council consider developing management actions for the species in the future,” said Markwith.

In North Carolina, there are still no commercial or recreational regulations in place for little tunny.

“North Carolina only accounts for a relatively low proportion of the overall coastwide landings of false albacore,” she said.

Most of these landings are from state waters and not federal waters, potentially making state management and enforcement difficult. In addition, the Mid-Atlantic Fishery Management Council might also be developing a small tuna fishery management plan, which would help to regulate the fishery in federal waters, the memorandum states.

“At this time, the division recommends not to take any management actions to the advisory committees but instead continue to monitor landings and collect biological information to help inform any management decisions that may result in the future,” said Chris Batsavage, fisheries biologist and special assistant for councils with the North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries.

“This is a schooling fish that spends most of its life in the open ocean and coastal ocean areas. It has a torpedo-shaped body, deeply forked tail resembling that of a tuna, with a pointed snout and crescent tail, which is perfect for short, fast bursts of speed to escape predators,” said Markwith.

In the Pacific Ocean portion of their range, false albacore resembles the striped bonito closely in body shape and in size. Fin structure is almost identical as well. The color pattern of false albacore helps distinguish this fish from a striped bonito.

“The color is above the horizontal lateral line of the fish, and the lateral line does not bend downward below the second dorsal (top) fin, and the anal fin starts farther back than the striped bonito,” she said.

Little tunny can form massive schools that are almost a mile long. When they are actively feeding, they are noisy and churn up the water with splashing and foaming action.

“False albacore feed mostly on other fish including scads, sardines and herring, but will also eat crustaceans and squid,” Markwith said.

In North Carolina, both sexes are fast growing, and males are generally larger than females. Females as young as a year old, or between 10.6 to 14 inches, are capable of spawning.

“Males mature at approximately 16 inches in length. In the Atlantic Ocean, false albacore will spawn from April through November. The maximum age of little tunny is thought to be 10 years old,” said Markwith.

When they are spawning, that activity takes place offshore in waters deeper than 100 feet.

The spawning season lasts for between four and eight months in both the Northern and Southern hemispheres, coinciding with warm periods of each year.

“Fertilization takes place with the female releasing her eggs in batches of as many as 1.7 million eggs in the water column. Males release their milt, or sperm, at the same time, which fertilizes the free-floating eggs,” she said.

Fertilized eggs are round and clear with a diameter of 0.8-1.1 millimeters and an overall amber color.

“Larvae hatch in about 24 hours after fertilization and are only 3 millimeters in length. Little is known of this stage of their lives, other than later on in life, they will make the change from juvenile to adult false albacore,” Markwith said.

Little tunny usually does not live to become much older than 5 years.

Recreational fisherman enjoy catching false albacore because of their speed and strength. Their average length is 32 inches, weighing about 20 pounds.

The largest known specimens can run as large as 48 inches in length and weigh as much as 30 pounds.

“There are strong commercial and recreational fisheries between Cape Cod and North Carolina each year between August through December,” said Batsavage.

“Fishing for false albacore is seasonal because they are such a highly migratory species, and will travel great distances during their comparatively short lives,” he said.

One of the best false albacore fisheries in the world is off the coast of Cape Lookout. A popular method of catching this species is by using fly-fishing equipment because it is reported to be especially challenging and a lot of fun.

It is important to get these fish to the boat quickly, as they will fight until their death if not handled with care. Little tunny is reportedly not good to eat, so it is best to quickly unhook them and release them back into the water in a timely fashion to avoid higher mortality of this fish when practicing catch and release.

The North Carolina state record for false albacore is a 32-pound specimen caught in 2015 off Morehead City.

When fishing for sport and you plan to release any fish, it is recommended to use barbless hooks that will make unhooking the fish easier and improve its chance of survival after re-lease.

It is a best practice to release this fish headfirst from about waist height above the water. Using this technique will give them a rush of ocean water through their gills and badly needed oxygen as they swim off.

The word “shark” conjures fear in many people, but these important large predators serve a critical role in the ecosystems in which they live.

Most sharks do not pose a threat toward people who venture into their domain. In fact, the sand tiger shark is one reason why so many scuba divers from across the world visit North Carolina’s “Graveyard of The Atlantic” – to dive with and photograph these magnificent animals that call the region’s shipwrecks their home.

National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration marine ecologists and their colleagues from the North Carolina Aquariums and South-East Zoo Alliance for Reproduction and Conservation sent remotely operated vehicles, or ROVs, to study and videotape how sand tiger shark presence related to reef fish on six Atlantic shipwrecks.

“We found that where the sand tiger sharks were present there was a higher variety of reef fish present that created a halo effect surrounding the sharks,” said National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ecologist Avery Paxton.

“Slowly cruising sand tiger sharks can act as a predation refugia, a large structure to hide behind during major predation periods on the reef. We filmed and observed mackerel scad schooling in close to sand tigers when we first dove the (wreck of the) USS Tarpon, we observed this association to change depending on time of day,” said Richard Gilmore Jr., senior scientist with Estuarine, Coastal and Ocean Science Inc. and a noted shark researcher. “We put our ROV on the bottom adjacent to the wreck for nearly an entire day at a time and watched the change in sand tiger behavior and the fish associated with them, actually surrounding the shark body until an hour or two after sunset.”

“We could do this as we used SIT (Silicon Intensified Cameras) on our Super Phantom ROV. The SIT cameras were special low-illumination cameras that allow viewing underwater during extreme low-light periods. There is no color, but you can see sand tiger behavior clearly at depths of 150 feet in clear water up to 60-90 minutes after sunset before astronomical twilight,” Gilmore said.

“What we discovered was that the mackerel scad would move closer to the shark as the sun set. There is higher predation during the crepuscular (twilight) period. We also actually filmed little tunny and common amberjack diving through the scad around sunset and afterwards. This is a typical period for densely schooling prey species to seek shelter on a reef or shallower nearshore waters where predators cannot get below them,” he said.

Gilmore said the scad were clearly using sand tiger sharks as a refuge from predators.

“We actually filmed the scad leaving the wreck and swimming up around the sand tiger’s body as the shark neared the wreck, then leaving the shark as it swam away from the wreck,” he said.

New research has shown that sand tiger sharks actually invoke changes to local fish species that are found on these same shipwrecks.

“We saw a lot of midwater-column species, including large jacks, barracuda and small silvery fish, hanging around the sharks. We discovered that sand tiger sharks play an important ecological role on shipwrecks by impacting the variety of reef fish seen at the same time,” Paxton said.

“On wrecks where there were no sharks, we saw a higher number of bottom-dwelling species, such as grouper and sea bass,” she said.

“Unlike other sharks, the sand tiger shark is holding sentinel over these shipwrecks off North Carolina. It surprised me how dramatically the reef fish species varied on wrecks when the sharks were not there,” said NOAA ecologist Chris Taylor.

Sand tigers are the top predator that balances the flora and fauna of the reef, analogous to the wolves of Yellowstone controlling elk populations or in Canada “keeping the caribou strong” as the Inuit say, or lions on the Serengetti controlling antelope and hyena populations, Gilmore said.

“Our team’s research has shown sand tiger sharks are important  to maintain a diversity of species on shipwrecks,” said Paxton. “They create a fascinating ecological mix of small, large and colorful species of fish all over the wrecks, making the shipwrecks an oasis for marine life.”

The Lore of Diving with Sand Tiger Sharks

Divers from across the world have been visiting North Carolina for more than 40 years for the plethora of shipwrecks found off the state’s coast, but for many, it is the sand tiger sharks seen on the same wrecks year after year that lure them.

“North Carolina was a destination I and a couple of my buddies wanted to visit for the last two years. It is within driving distance from Massachusetts and Connecticut and is what we would consider warm-water diving. Wrecks and sharks in the Morehead City area were the two big attractions we came to see,” said Massachusetts diver Denis Erofeyev.

“We got to see younger and faster sand tiger sharks inside some of the wrecks, such as the Aeolus, and much larger ones outside of the wreck of Caribsea. At the Caribsea, we swam inside with a group of 10 to 12 sharks that were all 6 to 7 feet long,” he said. “I didn’t do a whole lot of research on the species before the trip, so I was just excited to see sharks I haven’t seen before. During a two-hour ride to our first dive at the Aeolus, other divers told us about the ‘shark room’ and sharks swimming right at you in the corridors, which was exactly what happened, and I was thrilled to be in the water with them. I was amazed how unafraid they are of the humans. I would go there again to get more time in the water with them,” said Erofeyev.

“However, if Denis decided to touch one of them as one of our photographers did, he would experience a bite reflex that aquarists know well. It may be painful,” Gilmore said.

Sand tiger sharks do not get spooked or show much interest in divers, “but they know you are there,” said technical diver, Michael MacDonald.

They are docile until you touch one, he added.

“Sand tiger sharks make excellent photography subjects since they are not spooked easily.  I just enjoy watching them and you can often get very close to them. They often swim with their mouths open and you can get really nice shots of them with their mouth and rows of teeth exposed,” he said.

Long-term observations that continued into the night helped researchers conclude that sand tiger sharks are active nocturnal feeders and mate at night. The hypothesis is supported by observations by commercial fishermen, ROV recordings that showed increased swimming speeds — sharks chasing sharks — after sunset and increased incidence of mating scars on the same individual after a night between filming periods.

“Males are as scared as females as this is the only shark that I know of that keeps males at bay until they want to mate, and they all mate on the same night. The Sidney Aquarium observations from decades ago indicated that there was an alpha male that mated first,” Gilmore explained.

The large presence of wrecks off the North Carolina coast make for a fantastic dive destination, MacDonald said.

“A large amount of the wrecks are World War II-era and many have a history attached to them. While I prefer natural wrecks, North Carolina has also sunken many artificial wrecks (the Aeolus and Spar). These wrecks are teaming with marine life, huge bait balls and often large schools of sand tiger sharks, said MacDonald. “I firmly believe that when the conditions in North Carolina are good, it is some of the best diving in the United States.”

MacDonald said he usually visits North Carolina in late May to early June, when the water is still relatively cold by North Carolina standards but comfortable compared to New England waters and visibility is 50-60 feet on the offshore wrecks.

“While May can sometimes be early for sand tigers, we have always had pretty good luck,” he said.

On one trip in late May 2013 he said there must have been more than 100 sand tiger sharks on the Spar. It was a memorable experience seeing a wall of sharks, he said.

In 2018, while diving at the Papoose, there was a similar experience with 30 to 50 or more sand tiger sharks along with dusky and bull sharks, he said.

Generally, May through October is the best time to see sand tigers off North Carolina. June and July are also good. Later in the summer and early fall can also yield results but being peak hurricane season, divers are more likely to miss days of diving due to weather. By late June, the Gulf Stream has moved closer to shore and visibility can often be 70-100 feet or more on a lot of the offshore wrecks, MacDonald said.

Sand Tiger Shark Biology

Sand tiger sharks are found in all warm-temperate and temperate waters throughout the world. The sand tiger shark does not occur in the tropics. It does not occur in estuaries south of Cape Hatteras as adults, only to the north in the Chesapeake, Delaware and Narragansett bays.

In North Carolina, It’s long been known that there was a southern migration of sand tigers from waters north of Cape Hatteras. “However, our studies showed that it was the male sand tigers that migrated to North Carolina wrecks south of Cape Hatteras, all the way to east Florida to mate during the winter. The females never migrated,” said Gilmore. “We had groups of females that we sampled all year off east central Florida in the same area.”

Sand tigers are bulky in appearance with a flattened round, pointed snout. Their eyes are small and do not have eyelids. They have three erect functional rows of narrow anterior upper and lower jaw teeth used to grasp and swallow prey, not to cut or attack anything they could not swallow.

Sand tiger teeth are distinct in that the sand tiger can only consume small prey. It cannot cut prey with flat, serrated upper jaw teeth as seen in bull, sandbar, dusky and other common sharks.

Also, sand tigers will surface and gulp air to help balance their buoyancy.

“This species is usually harmless toward humans during regular daytime activities, but at night, sand tiger sharks become aggressive predators and have been known to attack a diver’s video light or dive light, apparently mistaking dive lights for the bioluminescent trail of a fleeing fish,” Gilmore said.

“Many nocturnal predators key on and chase “biological light,” produced by swimming fish disturbing microscopic plankton that produce light when disturbed, like aquatic fireflies. This is bioluminescence. But they certainly do like to feed voraciously in groups at night. Ask the croaker and net fishermen off Hatteras,” he said.

Sand tigers have two dorsal fins that are just about the same size. Nurse and lemon sharks both share this trait and are also found off North Carolina, but other than the dorsal fin similarity, nurse and lemon sharks look nothing like sand tiger sharks. The fin structure and body shape of the sand tiger makes them very easy to identify. Sand tigers have a distinctive “hump” on their backs that no other shark in local waters will feature.

Sexual maturity for males is reached when the shark is about 6 feet in length, or 6-7 years of age. Females mature when they grow to about 7 feet in length or reach 9-10 years old. Females give birth to a single pup from each of two uteri, who will devour their siblings in utero.

“They are the only shark species known to do this. They also feed on unfertilized eggs until a month of two before birth. All the lamnoid sharks (makos, great whites, threshers) feed on uterine eggs. We call this oophagy. Most sharks do not reproduce this way. Many reproduce like us, with a placenta and nourishment directly from the mother through the uterine membrane. Bull sharks have a little belly button when born where the placenta had attached. However, there was not doctor to tie it off, it closed and healed naturally,” Gilmore said.

“Mating is thought to take place between late March and April, with an average litter of two pups one from each uterus,” said Kate Goggin, a NOAA representative.

Female sand tiger sharks captured south of Cape Hatteras in studies were always pregnant if they were mature females resident in permanent spawning populations between June and November, Gilmore said.

“Every year males would show up on the North Carolina wrecks during the winter and spring and be lacerated by females and females lacerated by males. These were the obvious mating scars observed every year. No other shark that we know of shows mating scars on males. The sand tiger always does. These scars can heal within a month or two. We have documented that. They heal very quickly. You have to be there when they are mating,“ Gilmore said.

Catching Sand Tigers Prohibited by Federal Law

It is illegal to harvest a sand tiger shark. NOAA says, “If you don’t know, let it go.” This refers to sand tiger sharks and several other commonly encountered but prohibited shark species found in the U.S. Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean. The list includes great white, dusky, bigeye thresher, sand tiger and longfin mako, to name but a few.

NOAA suggests practicing the following safe catch-and-release practices if you happen to hook a shark:

• To maximize survival, keep the shark in the water. Use heavy fishing tackle to minimize the amount of time you spend fighting the shark. This will increase the shark’s chances of surviving the encounter.
• Do not gaff a shark that you plan on letting go. Use the leader to hold the shark at boat-side with its head underwater facing into the current.
• Remove hooks by using a dehooking tool. If you cannot remove the hook, or if removing it would cause harm to either you or the animal, cut the leader as close to the hook as safety allows to minimize any and all training gear that could adversely impact the shark once released. You can also use bolt cutters and remove the hook itself.
• When releasing the shark, let water flow through its gill slits by moving the animal forward in the water, or by placing the shark so the current flows toward its head until its energy returns.

Citizen Scientists Wanted

Spot a Shark USA is a citizen science program led by the North Carolina Aquariums to engage divers in sand tiger shark research and conservation. Photos of sharks you submit to SpotASharkUSA.com help solve mysteries about these imperiled sharks.

How do you photograph a shark for this project? Position yourself at a right angle either the left or right side of the shark, being careful to not block or alter the sharks behavior swimming through the water column.

The North Carolina Aquariums ask that you try to include the entire side of the sand tiger shark in your photos. Make sure your best photos are submitted that clearly show the sharks spots and markings including scars on the animal.

If you find yourself in a school of sand tigers, focus your attention on one animal at a time and do not try for super-wide-angle photos, but rather get single shark side-view images that show the body markings clearly.

Here’s how the project works: Photograph individual sand tiger sharks, post your images on SpotASharkUSA.com, where researchers will then try to identify each animal.

This is your opportunity as citizen scientists and avid lovers of the sea to make a difference and help protect and conserve the magnificent sand tiger shark.

One of the strangest looking and trickiest to catch saltwater fish in North Carolina waters is the triggerfish.

These animals swim by moving their top fin and bottom fins. Flapping them in the “breeze,” they are able to hover in one position. They can also lock themselves in a reef crevice for protection by erecting these same fins and wedging themselves in place. Once the fish release this defense mechanism, they are nearly impossible to get free — also posing a challenge for fishermen once hooked.

Gray triggerfish are the primary members of this species found in North Carolina waters. They range in the Atlantic Ocean from Nova Scotia south to Argentina. A second population can also be found in the Gulf of Mexico.

Queen triggerfish are the second member of this group caught off the North Carolina coast, but are less frequently encountered by fisherman. They live in depths between 7 and 92 feet in the Caribbean, Bahamas, the Atlantic from Canada to Florida, Bermuda and the Gulf of Mexico, but are more typically caught at depths between 10 and 98 feet.

In North Carolina, the state records are 11 pounds 6 ounces for a gray triggerfish caught off the coast of Morehead City in 1992, and 10 pounds 11 ounces for a queen triggerfish caught in 2012 off Jacksonville.

“Both species live on ocean hard bottoms, reefs and ledges, on shipwrecks, nearshore, and offshore locations, either alone or in small groups, or schools,” said McLean Seward, fisheries biologist with the North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries.

Both triggerfish species have various nicknames depending upon where they are caught, including taly, leatherjacket, leatherneck, or just plain triggerfish.

Easy to identify

Adult gray triggerfish are mainly olive-gray in color and have blue spots and lines on the upper body and dorsal fin, and the upper part of their eyes are blue. I have observed this species as primarily a light- to medium-gray in color while scuba diving.

“Adult gray triggerfish can change their color, especially during the spawning season that usually begins in April and will continue through August of each year. Males turn dark charcoal gray, while females who are actively nesting’s colors will be highly variable with contrasting white and black color patterns,” said Seward.

Juvenile triggerfish appear yellowish with violet dots that are usually small but can also have irregular dark patches that can be significantly large on their fins and body.

Juveniles also have saddle markings, and light spots on their dorsal, or top, and anal fins, he said.

“Both the gray and queen triggerfish have large, sharp teeth, and a deep, laterally compressed body covered with tough sandpaper-like skin,” said Seward.

Unlike their cousin, the filefish, which are commonly confused with triggerfish, triggerfish have more than one dorsal spine.

Gray triggerfish are easy to distinguish from queen triggerfish. Whereas grays have a drab coloration, queen triggerfish have a beautiful, rainbow spectrum along their bodies and fins. There is no mistaking the two.

“Gray triggerfish in North Carolina can grow to 30 inches in length and weigh up to 13 pounds, while queen triggerfish grow to maximum lengths of about 24 inches, and up to 12 pounds. Our average queen triggerfish tend to be slightly larger than the gray,” Seward said.

However, queen triggerfish are much less commonly encountered than gray triggerfish in North Carolina, he added.

“Looking at the last 10 years of our commercial fish house data, the average (fork length) for gray triggerfish was 15.3 inches and 18.2 inches for queen triggerfish. Gray triggerfish landed by the recreational fleet had an average fork length of 13.8 inches over the past 10 years. Recreational length frequency data was not available for queen triggerfish,” Seward noted.

Anatomy and life history

Both species share similar habitat, spawning behavior and life history.

“Triggerfish get their name from spines that have been developed on the dorsal fins that can be used as a predator defense and for holding themselves in place on rocky, or coral bottom. The first spine is large, and when upright it remains that way until the fish relaxes the smaller second spine, triggering the first,” said Seward.

“When a triggerfish feels threatened it will dive into a tight, confined space such as a crevice and anchor itself into place by locking its’ ‘trigger’ spine,” he said.

Gray triggerfish can live to be 16 years old. Male triggerfish are usually bigger than females. All triggerfish will grow to be sexually mature by the time they reach 2 years of age.

Spawning takes place between April and August of each year. Males establish home territories, build their nests in the sand and coax females into the nest to spawn. The two swim tight circles around one another in the nest, quickly changing color. As the female lays her clutch of eggs in the nest immediately after the circling behavior, the male fertilizes the eggs with his milt, or sperm.

The spawning behaviors of triggerfish closely resemble that of a freshwater bass, including smallmouth and largemouth bass.

The males of both triggerfish species will establish territories of up to 33 feet in diameter and will attract several females. Spawning behaviors are the same for both species.

Triggerfish in North Carolina will voraciously defend their nests and eggs, even biting scuba divers who venture too close to their brood of eggs.

Female gray triggerfish can lay an average of 772,415 eggs.

After fertilization, females aerate the eggs by fanning and blowing on them until they hatch.

It is possible for a single male triggerfish to defend up to three active nest sites on the same reef. One female on a nest, guarding and providing oxygen to her eggs, is referred to as an active nest location. The female will also protect her unhatched young from predators that may include wrasse, grouper and snapper.

After 24-48 hours of the female caring for her eggs, they will hatch-out into larvae, which float to the surface where they frequently live among mats of sargassum.

Larvae and juveniles will live for between 4-7 months in the sargassum before they move to the ocean floor and grow into adulthood.

Underwater helicopter, hard to catch

“Both species of triggerfish use their dorsal and anal fins to go up and down in the water column and hover like a helicopter while searching for food below. They use their powerful jaws with incisor-like teeth to chisel holes and loosen and crush hard-shell prey that may include lobsters, crab, shellfish, shrimp and sea urchins,” said Seward.

Both gray and queen triggerfish get creative while hunting for food and sometimes direct a stream of water over the sandy ocean bottom to uncover sand dollars in order to eat them.

“Juvenile triggerfish eat barnacles, hydroids and many types of small worm species,” Seward said.

Shark, grouper and amberjack feed upon adult triggerfish, while marlin, dolphinfish, tuna, sailfish and shark prey upon smaller triggerfish.

Catching triggerfish is tricky with hook and line because they nibble and do not strike at bait. Bottom fishing for other reef fish species is usually the way anglers incidentally catch them.

Commercial fishing of this species is managed under a split season: The annual catch limit is divided with half available Jan. 1 through June 30 and half available July 1 through Dec. 31 each year, said Steve Poland, fisheries biologist and executive assistant for council with the Division of Marine Fisheries.

Each season remains open until the seasonal quota has been met or is projected to be met. Any leftover quota from the first season will roll in to the second season. Commercial fishermen are required to possess a limited access permit. The minimum size is 12-inch fork length and the trip limit is 1,000 pounds whole weight.

“The new recreational bag limit for gray triggerfish is now 10 fish per day. This is down from 20 fish per day prior to March of 2020,” said Poland.

There is currently no regulation for daily take of queen triggerfish but don’t clean them at sea.

“All triggerfish are required to be landed with fins and head intact. Recreational and commercial fishermen are required to use de-hooking tools when fishing for any snapper/grouper species, which includes triggerfish,” said Poland.

Fishing with non-stainless-steel circle hooks, either offset or non-offset, is required for all species in the snapper/grouper complex when using hook-and-line gear with natural baits in waters north of 28 degrees latitude.

“After the commercial quota has been met, all purchase and sale are prohibited, and harvest and/or possession is limited to the recreational bag limit while recreational harvest is open. This prohibition does not apply to fish harvested, landed and sold before the quota was reached and held in cold storage by a dealer,” Poland said.

Charter and head boats and commercial snapper/grouper vessels are required to have with them National Marine Fisheries Service-approved sea turtle release gear and follow smalltooth sawfish release protocols.

Scuba diving or snorkeling with spearfishing gear without re-breathers is an allowed method of fishing for triggerfish. Rod and reel fishing gear that is allowed includes vertical hook-and-line, hand-held hook-and-line and bandit gear.

There are three species of flounder found off the North Carolina coast. The summer flounder, southern flounder and Gulf flounder. When fishing for these flat fish, the challenge is in how you tell one apart from the other, because all three look so much alike.

“People have a hard time telling the southern flounder apart from summer flounder, so we are looking into public education to help people tell which fish is which,” said Lee Paramore, marine biologist with the North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries.

“Approximately 90% of flounder caught in North Carolina waters are southern flounder,” he said.

The 2020 recreational flounder season in North Carolina begins Aug. 16 and runs through Sept. 30.

Summer flounder, or fluke, pretty much stay offshore as they migrate past North Carolina heading north, and go inshore when they reach Chesapeake Bay, Delaware Bay and as far north as New England, Paramore said.

But, this fish will occasionally visit inshore waters of North Carolina – this adds to the confusion between the species.

“Southern flounder are found From Virginia south to Florida – that is our main flounder caught by fisherman by boat and from shore,” said Paramore.

“North Carolina is the confluence where we get fish from both the north and south Atlantic mixing together,” he said.

The summer, southern and Gulf flounder are all a left-eyed flounder.

As an underwater photographer and naturalist of more than 40 years, I find that one of the more interesting facts about all flounder is that when they are first born, all swim vertically in the water column like every other fish, but as they grow out of the larval stage, one eye will migrate to the top of the fish and the flounder will then begin to swim with its white belly facing the bottom. The eye that moves determines if the flounder is a “left-eyed”, or “right-eyed” flounder.

By the time you can see any flounder species with the naked eye, the eye that migrates to the top of the fish has already moved.

Summer flounder are found from Massachusetts south to Florida on the Atlantic Coast. They are most abundant from Cape Lookout north through Delaware, but have been observed and caught as far north as Maine.

Southern and Gulf flounder are found from North Carolina south.

All three flounder have a large, angled mouth with sharp serrated teeth, and both dorsal and anal fins are symmetrical and separated considerably.

Now, here is where it gets tricky in telling them apart. Summer flounder have three distinct ocellated brown spots on their back near the tail on the top of the fish and white on the bottom.

The ocelatted spot has a dark brown dot in the middle, surrounded by a white halo, or ring. The summer flounder’s body is oval-shaped, somewhat resembling that of a large, flat football.

Southern flounder have five brown spots on their back with no white circles surrounding them. Other than the spots on their back, it can be difficult to tell the summer flounder apart from the southern flounder.

Southern flounder are found in the oceans and estuarine waters along the Atlantic Seaboard from Virginia to southeast Florida, and in the Gulf of Mexico.

Gulf flounder can be found in North Carolina waters, but tend to stay farther south, with the center of population being the Gulf of Mexico.

This species has three ocellated spots that form a triangle in the middle of their backs.

These body markings, along with where on the fish the markings are found, are how you tell the summer, southern and Gulf flounder apart.

Paramore said all three flounder species share habitat.

Summer flounder live in high-salt coastal and estuary waters in the spring and summer but move to offshore waters during winter months.

Southern flounder can be found year-round in this region.

All three flounder will camouflage themselves under a thin layer of sand to avoid predators and change their skin pigmentation to better blend in with the bottom.

Once they’re buried under the sand, all you will see are two small eyes staring, and following you as you swim along the bottom. As a scuba diver or snorkeler, this makes a positive identification of the species next to impossible.

Flounder in North Carolina waters will grow up to 32 inches long, but they usually are 10 to 16 inches in length, said Paramore.

“Summer flounder will spawn during fall and winter months. Currents and winds blowing toward estuarine and coastal nursery areas carry larvae. The juvenile flounder live, feed, and grow in shallow nursery habitat for the first 18 to 20 months of their young lives, while trying to hide from predators,” he said.

As they grow, they move back to the open ocean, where they sexually mature, and join adult fluke that migrate up and down the Atlantic Coast. They will live to be about 15 years old.

“Adult summer flounder are predators that can swim at high rates of speed to capture their prey. They feed mainly on small fish, crabs, and shrimp. Their sharp serrated teeth make short order of their meal,” he said.

Females will mature at 11 inches in length, or about 1½ years old, while males will mature at 10 inches, or 1 year old.

Southern flounder spend the early part of their lives in coastal rivers and sounds. This species reaches sexual maturity at around 2 years of age and spawn offshore in the fall and winter months, Paramore explained.

Post-larval and juvenile life stages of this fish then relocate into estuarine nursery areas for food and cover from prey species.

Southern flounder are predators that ambush prey from the bottom where they lie camouflaged under a thin layer of mud or sand. Large southern flounder feed on shrimp, fish, and blue crabs.

“Gulf flounder are found near shore on rocky reefs and inshore, ranging into tidal creeks, on sandy, or muddy bottom,” he said.

“This member of the flounder family will spawn from October through February off the southeast Atlantic and Gulf coasts as water temperatures go down from 73 to 57 degrees Fahrenheit. Both female and male Gulf flounder become sexually mature like the summer and southern flounders at approximately 2 years of age,” Paramore said.

Juvenile Gulf flounder then move into the same type of nursery habitat with their cousins from January through April, where the young flounder hunt for food, protection and continue to grow.

Gulf flounder will feed on the same food sources as summer and southern flounder: shrimp, blue crabs and small fish.

So … what kind of flounder is this?

Sheepshead are not the first fish that comes to mind for recreational fishers, but anglers love these saltwater fish because they are a lot of fun to catch.

They are known for putting up quite the fight. They are also a pretty fish that, with their dark, vertical bars, look very much like a zebra that lives in the ocean. And although there currently is no federal regulation governing the sheepshead fishery, there are rules that apply in North Carolina, and it’s important to know the difference between sheepshead and another fish that bears a resemblance.

“Management of sheepshead was first done as part of the South Atlantic Fishery Management Council’s (SAFMC) Snapper/Grouper Fishery Management Plan. In April 2012, sheepshead were officially removed from the council’s management plan,” said Anne Markwith, conservation and fisheries biologist with the North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries.

Because of this decision, North Carolina’s authority over this species was found to be invalid. The North Carolina Marine Fisheries Commission requested a rule in November 2012 for landing sheepshead in state waters.

“In November 2013, the rule was approved, and in 2015 the commission implemented the new rules that included size, bag and trip limits to prevent too many fish from being removed from the biomass stock. This also allowed a greater number of fish to spawn before being caught by fishermen,” Markwith said.

The North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries is collecting information to better estimate the abundance of sheepshead in state waters. Commercial and recreational landings continue to be up and down over the years.

Long lives, wide range

Sheepshead are comparatively large and long-lived members of the porgy, or scup family. They range from South Florida north to Nova Scotia, Canada, and from the Atlantic coast of Brazil north to the Gulf of Mexico.

“In North Carolina waters, sheepshead are year-round residents who move from inshore brackish waters to offshore rocky bottom,” said Markwith,

Younger fish prefer shallow, well-vegetated environments, as well as solid habitat that afford protection to smaller sheepshead.

As sheepshead continue to grow, they relocate into adult habitat including rocks, pilings, shipwrecks, jetties and oyster reefs.

“Migration patterns are based on mark-recapture studies that have shown no large-scale north-to-south movements. Instead, the fish tends to move in east-west movements around inlets during the fall and winter, when adult sheepshead migrate out into the ocean to spawn,” said Markwith.

Sheepshead are omnivores, meaning they will eat both plants and small animals, and prefer eating barnacles, crabs and oysters.

This species spawns offshore during spring months and then returns to coastal and estuarine habitats to feed and continue growing as youngsters.

“Young sheepshead are of a higher density in grass flats and muddy bottom. As they get older and larger, they leave the safety of the grassy flats and join adult schools in and around jetties, breakwaters and piers,” she said.

“This species grows quickly until around 6 years of age, then the growth rate slows down. At 1 year old, sheepshead are approximately 10 inches in length; 2 years old, 12 inches; and all sheepshead are sexually mature by the time they reach 3-5 years old and attain a length of about 14 inches,” said Marwith.

In North Carolina waters, sheepshead typically grow to lengths of 20 to 25 inches and will weigh between 5 and 15 pounds, but like with so many saltwater fish species, these numbers are an average and can fluctuate.

The oldest reported sheepshead was 30 years old.

This fish is a close cousin of the much smaller scup. Their body shapes and fin structure are almost identical, but they are easy to tell apart from one another, both underwater and on shore.

Scup are much smaller and are not seen much larger than about 10-12 inches in length. They are more of a silvery-bronze in coloration, and their bodies give-off an iridescent spectrum of colors when struck by any light source, such as a dive light while scuba diving.

Scup have no vertical bars, but all age classes and sexes of sheepshead have dark vertical bars running through the gill plate, all the way back to the tail.

Mistaken identity

The public frequently mistakenly identifies black drum as a sheepshead. Physically, the two don’t look that much alike, with the drum’s mouth being placed more at the bottom of the fish facing downward to the bottom. The overall coloration of an adult black drum is, well, black.

“Black drum juveniles do have a similar vertical dark bar pattern along their body, while sheepshead have them from the gill plate back to the tail,” Markwith said.

Juvenile black drum’s mouths are facing downward, versus straight ahead for a sheepshead.

In North Carolina, mistaking a black drum for a sheepshead can lead to a hefty fine because of the difference in minimum size limits.

The size limit for black drum is no smaller than 14 inches and no more than 25 inches total length, except one fish per day may be more than 25 inches. Total length is measured along the midline from the tip of the compressed tail to the tip of the snout, according to the Division of Marine Fisheries. The minimum size limit for sheepshead is 10 inches fork length, which is measured from the fork in the tail to the tip of the snout. A mix-up can result in up to $255 in fines and court costs.

The state produced a graphic to help anglers tell the difference.

A second fish that somewhat looks like a sheepshead is the Atlantic spadefish. While the spadefish has vertical, dark bars running throughout its body like the sheepshead, the body more resembles that of a large freshwater angelfish, and physically looks nothing like a sheepshead.

Trends, statistics

Markwith said that in North Carolina, commercial fishers mainly catch sheepshead as bycatch when using fishing nets. This includes pound nets, gill nets and seines.

“A targeted spear fishery has grown over the past seven to eight years, as well as the gig fishery has become more popular during the same time period,” she said.

Gill nets in estuaries and pound nets account for more than 70% of the commercial landings in the past 10 years.

“Recreational harvest accounted for 84% of North Carolina’s total harvest in pounds from 2009 to 2018, and 89% of the 2018 harvest. Like the commercial catch, landings have fluctuated from year to year, with a low of 19,285 pounds in 1983, and a high of 1,456,396 pounds in 2017,” Markwith said.

In 2018, 343,772 fish were caught equaling 735,738 pounds of sheepshead that were landed recreationally, while 524,967 fish were released, Markwith reported.

Commercial landings have had the typical up-and-down fluctuation seen by the majority of fish species along the coast during the past 10 years, with the highest numbers of landings in the 2013 and 2014 fishing seasons.

“This species is caught by recreational anglers with much enthusiasm. In the past 10 years their popularity has grown exponentially. The best way to catch sheepshead recreationally is to use hook and line tackle, and this species is also becoming more popular to spear fishermen,” said Markwith.

Fishing for sheepshead by recreational fishers has gone down since 2008, however there was a spike of activity in 2013 when the federal government dropped protections for this fish. In the 2016-2018 seasons, 60% or more of this species that were caught off the coast of North Carolina were released back into the ocean.

The division said 90,291 pounds of sheepshead were landed in 2018 by commercial fishers. This accounted for a combined weight of 826,029 pounds.

Even though there has been a generally downward trend over the past five years, both commercial and recreational fisheries saw landings increase in the 2017 fishing season.

The Pamlico Sound Independent Gill Net Survey is used as an aid while calculating the abundance of sheepshead stocks in the Pamlico Sound region.

The Division of Marine Fisheries has determined that more research is needed that includes the creation of a tagging program to aid in figuring out where these fish move to during the course of a year and to help calculate juveniles’ and adults’ relative abundance.

“There also needs to be a continuation of the monitoring of recreational and commercial landings, and updating the basic biology as it pertains to maturity schedule, collection of age and sex information on the sheepshead fishery, and studying spawning areas and collecting data on their life history,” she said.

Catch a sheepshead

To catch sheepshead, a lot of fisherman use chum to attract the fish closer to their hooks. These are a challenging fish to hook because they strike and take bait very quickly. Common methods include hand lines, spinning tackle and cane poles, which allow feeling when the fish strikes their bait.

The best bait to use when pursuing sheepshead includes clams, barnacles, shrimp, fiddler crabs and oysters.

Fishing next to a piling is best, while others anchor their boats next to a jetty, and allow the tide to carry the bait across the rocky bottom.

Reprinted from the Ocracoke Observer

Coming across a dead wild animal is not fun. But death is part of nature. In the case of birds, a small band on one of its legs can reveal a fascinating history as was the case recently.

Here is the story. On an early morning walk May 12 to Springer’s Point, I came across a dead royal tern on the small beach. A bit of blood was on the outstretched wing. It had a metallic band on one of its legs.

Bird banding is a method of tracking and identifying birds. It involves attaching a small, ring-like band of colored plastic or metal to a bird’s leg. Terns and pelicans are usually banded when they are young. Others, such as warblers, are caught in a mist net stretched between two poles.

Once the bird is in hand, the banding crew records information such as the species, sex, age and weight. The band has a unique number and the information is sent to the Bird Banding Laboratory, or BBL, in Patuxent, Maryland, part of the United States Geological Survey.

The BBL has a webpage to send the band code and the circumstances around finding it. When I attempted to send it, I got a red flag indicating my information may be incorrect and to double check. I did and finally it was accepted.

That was not the end of the story.

Soon after, I received an email about the royal tern with band number 1704-56701.

“When we compared the data for this encounter report to the banding data and other recovery data for the same species, we found that the age of the bird is unusual,” it said.

The message asked to send a photo of the band, which I did, and the record was accepted. I later received a certificate of appreciation stating the tern was banded as a young bird in 1995, which would make the bird’s age 25 years.

The master bander on the certificate was John Weske who has banded both royal and sandwich terns and brown pelicans in North Carolina since 1974.

Weske has frequented Ocracoke for many years specifically to do bird banding on Big Foot Island, which can be seen from the Cedar Island and Swan Quarter ferries. It was created in the early 1980s from sand dredged from Big Foot Slough Channel and is about 44 acres.

The dead tern I found was banded on a Department of Transportation dredge spoil island in Hatteras Inlet that has since disappeared.

“Back in the 90s it had sizable royal tern and brown pelican colonies,” Weske said. Two other North Carolina banded terns found in Belize and Florida were 30 years old.

The pursuing bird was not a jaeger, but a peregrine falcon that flew into the Springer’s Point’s maritime forest. The dead tern’s bloody spot makes me suspect that it was struck by the falcon.

A final note on bird banding. One of the first records of bird banding in the United States was in 1804 when James Audubon tied a small circle of silver thread to the legs of nestling phoebes at his farm that documented they return to their nest site.

Red drum, North Carolina’s official state saltwater fish, live in coastal and estuarine waters from Massachusetts to Mexico.

The colors can range from a deep blackish, coppery color to almost completely silver. The most common color is reddish bronze.

In 1971, the North Carolina General Assembly designated red drum as the state saltwater fish. The Tar Heel State has long been known for its trophy-sized red drum that can weigh more than 40 pounds.

“Red drum are usually caught in the surf and sound between Oregon Inlet and Cape Lookout. The state record for red drum is a 94-pound, 2-ounce specimen caught in 1984 off of Hatteras Island,” said Lee Paramore, fisheries biologist with the North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries. “In addition to being the state record, it is also a world record red drum for all tackle.”

North Carolina has produced 10 out of the 16 current world record red drum.

“They have at least one large ocellated spot on their tail, with many having two. This is why red drum are also called “spot-tail bass,” Paramore said.

Because of that spot, which resembles an eye, the species’ scientific name is Sciaenops ocellatus — the Greek “Sciaenopsis” for perch-like fish and the Latin “ocellatus” for eye-like, colored spot.

“Biologists think that the spots could be used to fool predators into attacking the red drum from the tail instead of near their eyes, allowing the fish to escape,” said Paramore.

They are also known as channel bass, redfish, drum and puppy drum, according to the North Carolina Coastal Reserve and National Estuarine Research Reserve.

Red drum get their common name not only because of their color, but also because during spawning season, males give off a drum-like noise by vibrating a muscle in their swim bladder. The species is part of the family that includes Atlantic croaker, spot, black drum, weakfish and spotted seatrout and is most abundant from Virginia to Florida.

“Large red drum of up to 90 pounds live in the coastal waters of North Carolina throughout the year and are observed in the surf during spring and fall. They are commonly found in the Pamlico Sound during summer months,” said Paramore.

Spawning occurs during the fall around coastal inlets and in the Pamlico Sound.

Larval and juvenile red drum use several shallow estuarine habitat types in coastal sounds and rivers during the first few years of their life, Paramore said. Once they mature at about 3-4 years of age, or roughly 32 inches in length, they move out of the estuaries to join adult spawning schools in the ocean.

Red drum commonly reach 40 years of age or older. The oldest fish on record was 62 and caught in North Carolina, Paramore said.

This fish is an opportunistic feeder, and their diet can change as they grow in age and change their habitat. Small crab, and shrimp make up most of a juvenile drum’s diet.

Adult red drum will also feed on several other species of available fish, including Atlantic menhaden, mullet and spot.

Drum tend to like water temperatures above the low 50s, with the best fishing when waters reach the low-70-degree mark. Pamlico Sound and its estuaries, plus the Hatteras Island beaches are among the best places to catch red drum.

Red drum are highly sought after targeted by recreational anglers throughout the year in the coastal sounds, rivers and beaches of North Carolina.

Techniques used to catch red drum vary, but included regular spinning and fly tackle, using live, dead and artificial bait.

“Over the past 10 years, red drum have regularly placed in the top five most targeted fish species in state coastal waters. Landings change annually and most fish captured are released,” he said.

The red drum recreational harvest 12-year average is 227,015 fish, equal to 1,018,965 pounds, since 2008. Release numbers are much higher, averaging 2,025,672 individuals released since 2008, said Paramore.

By using a circle hook and bringing the fish directly to shore or boat and not “playing” with the drum, the survival rate for caught and released red drum can be greatly increased. It’s also important to be gentle when handling any fish, and holding each specimen underwater so it can obtain get badly needed oxygen from the water before releasing.

There’s no directed commercial fishery for red drum in North Carolina today, and historically the species only made up a small portion of North Carolina’s total commercial landings, said Chris Batsavage, fisheries manager and special assistant for councils with the state Division of Marine Fisheries.

“Compared to the entire Atlantic coast, North Carolina is the major player accounting for more than 95% of the Red drum harvest over the past two decades. Virginia is the only other significant contributor of commercial landings. Harvest in North Carolina fluctuates annually and has averaged 162,690 pounds since 2008,” he said.

Gill nets are the main gear used to take red drum.

“Red drum are jointly managed by both the North Carolina Fishery Management Plan for interjurisdictional fisheries, Amendment 2 to the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission, or ASMFC, Fishery Management Plan for Red drum,” said Batsavage.

This plan requires circle hooks be used in some recreational fisheries, and expanding the current small-mesh gill net attendance requirements in the commercial fishery.

Amendment 2 to the ASMFC plan was adopted in June 2002, and required states to implement and maintain management measures that prevent overfishing and achieve optimum yield in the Red drum fishery.

“Regulations enacted as part of the original North Carolina Red drum fishery management plan have satisfied this coastwide requirement,” Batsavage said.

Research has shown that future efforts need to include information on the size distribution of recreational releases, commercial discard estimates, fisheries independent data on recruitment of juvenile fish through adults, assessment of adult stocks, estimates of fecundity, or fertility, of females, and validation of subadult abundance, he said.

Batsavage said that the strict rules for red drum in North Carolina are why most fisherman release their fish back into the water.

“In North Carolina, the current rules state that in state waters that are between shore and 3 miles offshore, one fish per day can be kept for eating if it is larger than 18 inches and smaller than 27 inches in total length,” said Batsavage.

It is illegal to catch a red drum if you are more than 3 miles from the coast in federal waters, and you cannot gig, spear or gaff one of these fish under any circumstances.

American shad are found along the entire East Coast, ranging from the St. Johns River in Florida to Labrador.

On the West Coast, American shad are considered an exotic species, having been introduced at the end of the 19^th century. They are now found from Sacramento, California, to southern Alaska.

According to the American Shad Habitat Plan published in 2014 by the North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries and the North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission, American shad return to all coastal rivers in North Carolina each spring, and are most abundant in the Roanoke, Chowan, Tar/Pamlico, Neuse, Northeast Cape Fear and Cape Fear rivers, as well as in the Albermarle and Pamlico sounds.

In North Carolina, American shad are also referred to as white shad.

According to a report by Keith Ashley and Kevin Dockendorf, fishery biologists with Wildlife Resources, American shad historically supported important, and sport and commercial fisheries along the Atlantic coast. Overfishing, pollution and the construction of dams, which block migrating fish from reaching spawning grounds, nearly wiped out many shad runs along the coast.

Construction of hydroelectric dams across major river systems, overfishing and water pollution from increased development led to degraded spawning habitat across the state. This in turn led to a decrease in the reproduction and numbers of American shad in North Carolina waters.

Currently, the federal and state resource agencies are working to restore American shad to many North Carolina Rivers throughout the state.

American shad populations declined sharply in the late 20^th century, however, this trend may be reversing, thanks to the cooperative efforts of Wildlife Resources and the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. Since 1998, the two agencies have worked together to restore depleted populations of American shad along the Atlantic coast by stocking more than 8 million “marked” shad fry in the Roanoke River as part of the Roanoke River American Shad Restoration Program, said Ashley and Dockendorf.

The Roanoke River restoration effort includes moving spawning adult shad upstream of major dams on that drainage and stocking hatchery-reared American shad fry. At the same time dams are being removed, fish passages are being built to allow free, unencumbered upstream access to historic spawning grounds and safer downstream passage for adult and juvenile shad heading back out to the sea.

The recreational sport fishery is more important to North Carolina residents than commercial fishing for this species in rivers still with viable spawning populations, including the Cape Fear, Neuse and Tar and Pamlico rivers.

As an example of the importance of this species to the region, the Grifton Shad Festival, beginning in 1971, is one of the longest-running festivals in North Carolina. It is the oldest festival in Pitt County and the second oldest in eastern North Carolina. Or, as billed on the town’s website, it’s “One of the oldest and most Shadtastic Festivals in all of North Carolina.”

Grifton has been recognized by the North Carolina General Assembly as the official shad capital of North Carolina.

But because of the coronavirus pandemic, the festival is on hold. A date for the event is to be announced, festival organizers announced March 20.

Frequently misidentified

American shad are frequently confused with hickory shad because they are similar in size and both have four to six dark spots along both sides of their bodies. The lower jaw of the hickory shad sticks out beyond the upper jaw, where the American shad has both the upper and lower jaws being of the same length. Both species will school together and share the same habitat.

During the spawning run, typically from late February through early April in North Carolina, adult American shad do not feed, but will strike at artificial lures, including darts and small shiny spoons.

American shad are said to give a better fight than hickory shad, but they do not “leap” out of the water like the hickory shad once hooked.

Shad are anadromous fish, feeding in the open ocean until maturity, and then returning to freshwater rivers to reproduce. The American shad is also a migratory species, moving generally north during the spring and summer, and south during the fall and winter. Some shad travel over two thousand miles in a single year.

A small group of shad winter off the coast of Nova Scotia, moving into the Bay of Fundy, the Gulf of St. Lawrence and along the coast of Labrador to spawn in summertime. As summer approaches, adult shad from all along the East Coast gather in the Gulf of Maine. Large numbers move into the Bay of Fundy, following the coast of Nova Scotia in late spring, and move through the head of the bay through the summer months. As summer turns to fall, the shad move along the coast of New Brunswick as they begin the return trip south. They continue to travel south through the fall. Most spend the winter months feeding in the waters off the mid-Atlantic states.

Shad born in Southern rivers continue on, arriving in Florida and Georgia in time to spawn in January and February. In the spring, the spawning run moves steadily up the coast: the Carolina’s in March, April in Chesapeake Bay and May and June in the northeast. The northerly migration pattern of American shad varies with the age of individual fish. Mature adults returning to spawn travel faster and closer to shore, while the juveniles travel more slowly and farther offshore and continue to feed at sea.

Spawning adults locate their home region by orienting themselves to ocean currents and changes in water salinity. The exact method by which shad identify their specific home stream is still largely unknown. Research has suggested that the principal homing mechanism may be olfactory in nature. Shad may find their natal stream by recognizing its unique smell.

Shad returning to spawn gather in the estuary of the mouth of their home river, waiting for the right conditions. Water temperature is the key factor in determining when shad will make the upstream run. Upstream movement and spawning begin when the water temperature has reached about 54 degrees Fahrenheit and continues until the temperature climbs to 68 degrees, with peak activity occurring at about 65 degrees. Although temperature is the main trigger, water volume flow, water clarity and the lengthening period of daylight are also factors that affect the timing of the spawning run.

Shad spawn in the main stem of rivers, in areas of moderate current flow. Spawning occurs at night, beginning at sunset and continuing until about midnight. Most likely, some form of chase is involved, with males swimming in tight circles around the females.

Females release their eggs directly into open water as shallow as 3 feet, or as deep as 20 feet. Males swimming nearby release milt to fertilize the eggs as they slowly sink. After spawning, shad that have survived the difficult upstream journey and the exhausting process of spawning return downstream almost immediately to rejoin the offshore juveniles as they begin their springtime migration through the Gulf of Maine.

The number of eggs a female American shad will release depends on the latitude of the river of origin. Southern shad may release over a half million eggs but will only live to spawn once. Shad on the northern end of the range will release only 100,000 to 200,000 eggs, but may return to spawn more than once. The average spawning release for the female along the mid-Atlantic coast is between 200,000 to 400,000 eggs.

Large numbers of eggs are needed to offset intense predation. Predatory fish, such as bass and pickerel, and birds, such as gulls and cormorants, eat both eggs and juvenile shad. Offshore, striped bass, porpoises and sharks are among the many predators that feed on shad. Only one out of every 100,000 fertilized eggs will develop into a fish that survives long enough to return to spawn as an adult.

After fertilization, the newly laid eggs are carried downstream by the current and hatch in six to 12 days, depending on water temperature. The eggs hatch to release a transparent, thread-like larvae which is slightly less than 1/2 inch long. Larvae feed on microscopic plankton in the surrounding water. The millions of newly hatched shad larvae are also an important part of the rich mix of plankton found in rivers and estuaries, providing a significant food source for other species in the food chain.

When the larvae are about 4 to 6 weeks old, they start to develop into the juvenile stage and begin to more closely resemble adult shad. Juvenile shad spend the remaining weeks of summer moving constantly, feeding throughout the water column. By summer’s end, the juvenile shad have grown to be about 3 to 4  inches in length. As water temperatures begin to drop with the approach of autumn, the young shad begin to move downstream and out into the ocean, where they spend the next several years feeding and growing. They remain in the open sea until they become sexually mature at 3 to 5  years for males, and 4 to 6 years for females.

Second of two parts.

Striped bass is somewhat of a mystery fish. Much of its complex behavior was poorly understood until recently. Much remains unclear.

Not all striped bass behave the some way at the same age. For example, while about 50% of females reach sexual maturity by 4 or 5 years of age, the remaining half take 6 to 9 years to mature. Males, however, generally mature 50% earlier, at 2 years old, while 75% mature at age 3 and all by the age of 4.

Soon after spawning, adults will leave freshwater and will travel north along the coast. Females will generally travel faster than males. But since males mature earlier than females, they will join the coastal migration several years sooner.  For some, the destination is the waters of coastal New Jersey or New York. Many enter Narragansett Bay in Rhode Island, but most will spend the months of summer and early autumn feeding near the islands of Martha’s Vineyard and Nantucket, near Cape Cod or in the southern Gulf of Maine. A few will travel as far as the northern Gulf of Maine or into the Bay of Fundy.

By mid-autumn, the migration is reversed, and the stripers return south once again. A few fish will remain in northern waters, over wintering in isolated pockets all along the coast, then returning to spawn in the spring. Some Delaware and Hudson River fish will travel only as far as the waters off of the New Jersey coast. But most fish of all stocks return to the Mid-Atlantic overwintering grounds.

By early April, mature striped bass have begun to move into the mouths of their natal rivers. While some may travel as much as 200 miles upstream, most will spawn in the slightly brackish or freshwater sections just above the upper estuaries of large rivers, in waters less than 20 feet deep. Water temperature is the key factor in determining when spawning will occur. Peak spawning activity occurs when the water is about 60 to 65 degrees in temperature. This generally occurs from mid-April to mid-May in the Mid-Atlantic region. Spawning is usually completed in all regions by the end of June or early July.

Females will release their eggs at or near the surface as nearby males release milt to fertilize them. As they grow older and larger, the number of eggs released also grows. A female rockfish in her first spawning season will release about 400,000 eggs. Toward the end of their natural life span, a large, healthy female can distribute 10 times as many, releasing over 4 million eggs in a single season. Similar to many other types of fish, striped bass release large number of eggs to offset intense predation. During early life stages, they are preyed on by many other species.

But striped bass eggs have an additional obstacle to overcome. In order to successfully hatch, they must remain suspended in the water. Since striped bass eggs are slightly heavier than water, they begin to sink slowly as soon as they are laid. Any eggs, which fall to the bottom, are unlikely to hatch. The eggs depend on sufficient river current and tidal flow to keep them suspended.

Each egg contains a yolk sac, which provides nutrition for the developing embryo, and an oil globule, which also feeds the growing fish. Eggs of striped bass that spawn in slow-moving rivers have a slightly larger oil globule, making them more buoyant and more likely to stay suspended long enough to hatch successfully.

Eggs, which remain afloat, will hatch in 1 1/2 to 3 days, again, depending on water temperature. The eggs hatch to release larvae, which are about a 1/4 long. The attached yolk sac and oil globule will continue to feed the larvae for about a week. They will then begin to feed on microscopic organisms called zooplankton, which are suspended in the water. Larvae will continue to feed in the open water of their natal river for four to six weeks, drifting slowly downstream.

When the young have grown to be about 1 1/4 inches long, they develop into the juvenile stage and more closely resemble adults.  They will begin to exhibit schooling behavior, forming groups of as many as several thousand fish.

As the summer months pass, they will move downstream into saltier water, inhibiting the inshore tidal creeks of the upper to mid-estuary.

Migration patterns for older juveniles vary with location. In most coastal areas, the young of the year will move into the lower estuary during their first autumn and will spend the winter months there or in the adjacent offshore waters. Subadults from the Hudson and Delaware rivers will develop a pattern of moving generally north and east during the spring and summer, then south and west during the fall and winter, traveling further and further each year. Upon reaching sexual maturity, many will join the offshore migration from North Carolina in the winter to New England in summer. Others will retain the more local migratory pattern, gathering off the coast of New Jersey in winter.

In the Chesapeake Bay area, immature rockfish remain in the tidal freshwater or brackish stretches of their natal river for two years. During the spring of their second year, they move through the lower estuaries into the open bay, moving generally north during the summer. By autumn, they move inshore and southward, settling into the deep channels of the lower bay during winter. Recent research has shown that a few immature subadults travel farther south, leaving the bay to join migrating adults gathered off the Virginia and North Carolina coasts. In the spring, they will follow adults returning to spawn back into the bay.

Some Chesapeake Bay males begin offshore migration during their first season in salt water. The majority of fish in Chesapeake Bay during summer are mature males.

Females continue to migrate within the bay for three to seven additional years before achieving spawning age, with many immature females migrating to the coast.

The first of two parts

Each year usually starting in April, large schools of striped bass make their way north along the coast. Most make a journey of 500 miles or more from Chesapeake Bay.

The Roanoke River has critically important breeding, and juvenile rearing habitat for striped bass. From late March to the beginning of April, striped bass begin to arrive at the lower Roanoke River to spawn.

The basin contains 9,580 square miles, and over 400 miles of that being river from the foothills of the Blue Ridge Mountains in Virginia to the Albemarle Sound in North Carolina, according to Stripers 247.

This river system is considered to have good water quality, all though urban and agricultural runoff are increasing problems to the drainage, according to Stripers 247.

The striped bass fishing season in the Roanoke River basin opened this year March 1 and ends April 30. The daily creel limit on the Roanoke is two fish per angler, with a minimum length limit of 18 inches. No striped bass between 22 and 27 inches can be possessed at anytime.

Fishermen are required to use a single barbless hook or a lure with a single barbless hook when fishing in the upper Roanoke River from April 1 through June 30.

The Cape Fear River is another story all together.

Bass in this drainage have been tested to include very high limits of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances, or PFAS. This material has been referred to as forever chemicals, and does not go away, or break down in the environment.

Blood from 38 striped bass taken from the Cape Fear River had more than 40 times the safe level of PFAS in their blood than those found at aquaculture facilities grown in North Carolina.

Levels in Cape Fear River Striped bass had total PFAS levels of 551 parts per billion, or ppb, while those grown in aquaculture were at a much lower, safe level of 13.6 pbb.

The striped bass study was collaboration between the North Carolina Center for Human Health and the Environment, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission.

There has been a long-standing moratorium on striped bass fishing in this drainage, and the new study shows it is likely that largemouth bass, catfish and other species may also have high levels of PFAS, and therefore not safe to eat.

Female striped bass can be more than 3.5 feet in length and weigh 30 to 40 pounds. Striped bass never stop growing as they age. They can live up to 31 years in the wild and weigh up to 100 pounds. The largest striped bass on record was caught in North Carolina in 1891 and weighed 125 pounds.

In the mid-Atlantic and southern states, striped bass are called rockfish.

Fishermen along the northeast coast have eagerly sought striped bass since long before the advent of graphite rods and high-tech spinning reels.

Many Native American tribes in the northeast traveled to the coast to establish seasonal fishing villages. Striped bass were caught, along with other migrating fish, in wooden traps called weirs.

When European colonists arrived, they were poorly equipped to farm New England’s thin rock soil. Striped bass, along with river herring and shad, became an important food source, as they were easily caught by the thousands in tidal creeks and estuaries.

Striped bass were considered so vital to the Massachusetts Bay colony that in 1639, their use as fertilizer was banned to force colonists to develop fishery commerce with Europe. The commercial value of striped bass became evident to New Englanders long before the American Revolution.

In 1670, the members of Plymouth Colony dedicated the proceeds from a striped bass sales tax to help fund the construction of the first public school in the new world. The school was not free, rather required a low tuition to support the teacher.

Today, the commercial and recreational fishing of striped bass is a multi-billion dollar industry. But it is an industry, which has come perilously close to collapse. As early as the mid-18th century, striped bass populations along the east coast had been know to crash suddenly and dramatically. Regulations and prohibitions against winter fishing or sale of striped bass went into effect in New York in 1758 and in Massachusetts in 1797.

By the mid-19th century, a pattern of decline was beginning to become evident in spots throughout New England, despite abundant stocks elsewhere.

By the late 19th century, numbers of rockfish all along the northeast coast had fallen dramatically. The turn of the 20th century saw the days of abundant striped bass become a distant memory. While no one can be certain as to the cause of this catastrophic decline, a number of factors stand out.

As the United States grew into an industrial giant during the course of the 19th century, the coastline from the mid-Atlantic states to Maine became increasingly developed. This lead to an inevitable loss of critical spawning and nursery habitat by the construction of dams.

Pollution, particularly raw sewerage dumped directly into rivers by the growing populations of eastern seaboard cities, was also very likely a factor.

But it was almost certainly overfishing, which did the greatest damage to striped bass stocks. From the earliest days, mortality from fishing outstripped their ability to reproduce. That it took over 200 years to nearly fish them out is testament to their previously enormous abundance.

Striped bass were originally found along the east coast from the St. John’s River in Florida to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and on the gulf coast, in the Apalachicola River.

South of the mid-Atlantic states, striped bass spend most of their time in rivers during summer when water temperatures are high in tidally influenced (salt water) sections of the river and move into tidally influenced sections when water temperatures drop.

The West Coast has an established population, having been introduced into California as an exotic species in the late 19th century. Landlocked populations have also been established in 31 states across the country.

The largest concentrations of striped bass are found in the area from the mid-Atlantic states through southern New England, ranging from North Carolina to the southern Gulf of Maine.

Principal spawning areas include Chesapeake Bay, the Hudson River, the Delaware River and the Roanoke River/Albemarle sound area.

The Chesapeake Bay area is by far the single most important spawning ground for striped bass. The bay’s many tidal estuaries and backwaters provides a vast amount of natal and nursery habitat. The broad, shallow bay itself is a fertile feeding ground for juvenile rockfish. Both historically and currently, the bay provides 70-80% of the east coast migratory population when abundance is high.

The Hudson River contributes an additional 10% and the Delaware Bay area around 20%.

Since striped bass rely so heavily on Chesapeake Bay during the critical early stages of their lives, protection of this vital habitat has been a key factor in establishing healthy population levels.

Next: The life cycle of striped bass

The sudden appearance of a bottlenose dolphin mounding its back and flashing its dorsal fin at the surface is always an unexpected thrill. And when one is seen, more are almost certain to follow.

Some may emerge in unison within inches of each other, while others may be scattered hundreds of yards apart yet clearly moving as a group. Who can resist stopping whatever their doing to watch where they’ll come up next?

Bottlenose dolphins, or Tursiops truncates, are hardly unique to North Carolina. They occur in tropical and temperate coastal waters around the world. Their common occurrence close to shore probably makes them the most frequently sighted of all the world’s more than 80 species of whales and dolphins. Their widespread distribution, however, hasn’t prevented local interests from proclaiming special recognition to the dolphins in their area. This is a good thing, however.  It can help encourage local research and protection measures which are vital for conservation.

In North Carolina, for example, House Bill 598 filed in April 2019 would designate bottlenose dolphins as the state’s official marine mammal. Introduced by Reps. Bobby Hanig, R-Currituck, and Holly Grange, R-New Hanover, the bill won unanimous approval in the House and passed a first reading in the Senate, where it was then referred to committee. The North Carolina General Assembly is set to convene April 28, but some legislative committee meetings scheduled for this week have been canceled because of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Despite widespread distribution, bottlenose dolphins are divided into hundreds of discrete local and regional populations, or stocks, worldwide. Although the range of each stock typically overlaps at least one neighboring stock, each is biologically isolated to varying degrees by subtle social, ecological and behavioral differences. These differences reflect generations of experience learning about how to exploit the specific conditions in a given area. Consequently, stocks can differ widely in abundance, geographic range, food preferences, migratory patterns and other characteristics. But the loss of any one stock can leave a long-term gap in a species’ range and decrease its overall genetic and behavioral diversity.

Subdivided stocks

The National Marine Fisheries Service, or NMFS, the federal agency responsible for conserving most marine mammals in U.S. waters, recognizes 16 overlapping stocks of bottlenose dolphins between New York and southern Florida (S.A. Hayes et al 2019). Six, the oceanic stocks, occur primarily or exclusively in ocean waters, while 10 others are confined largely to specific inshore bays, sounds, and estuaries – the estuarine stocks.

The current subdivision of stocks is by no means a settled matter. Researchers at the NMFS Southeast Fisheries Science Center are developing techniques to identify genetic differences between the various U.S. bottlenose dolphin stocks and their work to date is promising. If successful, minute skin samples may soon be sufficient to identify which stocks individual animals belong to. This could result in some significant changes in the number or range of recognized stocks recognized along the Atlantic Coast.

As recently as the 1980s, East Coast dolphins were thought to be divided into just two stocks, an inshore and offshore stock. The more complex recognition of 16 stocks came to light as a result of recent studies using satellite telemetry tags and photo identification to track the movements of individual animals. And if current stock delineations further change significantly, it could lead to profound changes in conservation needs.

In North Carolina, photo-ID techniques were first applied to dolphins by Natural History Curator Keith Rittmaster at the North Carolina Maritime Museum and N.C. Division of Marine Fisheries Marine Mammal Stranding Coordinator Dr. Victoria Thayer, near Beaufort in 1985. Similar efforts around the state followed a decade later with Rich Mallon-Day working at the Nags Head Dolphin Watch on the Outer Banks, Dr. Laela Sayigh at the University North Carolina Wilmington and Dr. Andy Read at Duke University Marine Laboratory.

By the mid-1990s, scientists working to photo-identify bottlenose dolphins along the East Coast realized that, by pooling their local photo catalogues, a far more complete picture of dolphin movements and biology could be gained. Thus, in 1997, Kim Urian, a research analyst at Duke Marine Lab in Beaufort, cooperated with researchers and research organizations all along the East Coast to compiling single catalogue for all photo-identified dolphins along the Atlantic Coast

Initially funded by NMFS and still maintained by Urian, the result, the “Mid-Atlantic States Bottlenose Dolphin Photo-Identification Catalogue,” includes contributions from 37 researchers and research groups.  It contains more than 24,000 photographs of 15,400 individuals from the New York Bight to the Indian River in Florida. It includes 8,403 photographs of 5,424 individuals from North Carolina alone. Because most dolphins lack distinguishing marks or go unphotographed, and some identified dolphins have since died, the numbers represent an unknown portion of the total. And most are not assigned definitively to specific stocks, given limited sighting histories.

Based largely on these studies, five of the 16 East Coast stocks are found at least seasonally in North Carolina. Of the five stocks in North Carolina, two are estuarine and three are oceanic stocks. With the migratory patterns of each overlapping one or more adjacent stocks at different times of the year, North Carolina is one of the hardest areas on the East Coast to assign sightings or dead stranded dolphins to a particular stock.

One of the two estuarine stocks, the northern North Carolina estuarine stock is centered in northern parts of the state in Albemarle, Pamlico and Core sounds. Some of its members, however, have been seen as far north as the lower Chesapeake Bay, Virginia, in summer, and south to Wilmington or beyond in fall and winter. It currently numbers an estimated 782 dolphins.

The southern North Carolina estuarine stock is smaller. It occurs primarily in bays and sounds between the New River near Jacksonville and the South Carolina border, but some members have been photographed as far north as Core Sound near Beaufort in summer. There is no recent estimate of abundance for this stock, but photo-identification studies completed more than 15 years ago suggested it numbered fewer than 200 dolphins at that time. Individuals in both the northern and southern estuarine stocks occasionally pass through inlets traveling and foraging close to shore – generally within a few hundred yards of the beach.

The abundance and range of oceanic stocks tends to be greater than estuarine stocks, which is certainly true for the three stocks occurring at least seasonally off North Carolina. One – the offshore stock – ranges over the outer half of the continental shelf from Florida to southern New England and is by far the largest on the East Coast. It numbers some 75,000 dolphins.  Although occupying federal waters well beyond the state’s 3-mile jurisdiction, dead individuals from this stock sometimes wash ashore in North Carolina. Offshore dolphins tend to be larger and more robust than animals closer to shore and may even represent a separate species of dolphin.

The two other oceanic stocks off North Carolina are coastal stocks living over inner portions of the continental shelf generally between 3 and 40 miles of shore. Frequently, however, some of their members move to within a mile or less of the beach and will even poke into the mouths of inlets. Both coastal stocks migrate north in spring and south in the fall, but with different ranges they tend to occur off North Carolina at alternating times of the year.

The northern coastal migratory stock ranges from North Carolina in winter to New York in summer and is estimated to number more than 6,000 animals. The Southern Coastal Migratory Stock moves from northern Florida in winter to Virginia in summer and is thought to number about 3,700 animals. Thus, whereas the northern coastal stock is generally present off North Carolina in winter, the southern stock is present in summer. Both stocks, however, may be present off North Carolina in late fall and early winter.

Conservation issues

The bottlenose dolphin stocks in North Carolina currently appear to be stable and healthy.  Dolphins, however, are subject to human impacts. They can be injured or killed by entanglement in fishing gear and collisions with boats, and both pollution and disruption of natural behaviors can affect their health and reproduction, cause stress, and shorten their life spans. Such impacts can precipitate declines and even their disappearance in local areas. This is particularly true for small stocks, such as those in the state’s estuaries where exposure to human impacts is greatest. Assuring the stability and health of dolphin stocks in North Carolina therefore requires ongoing studies to monitor human-related injuries and deaths, track the abundance and reproduction rates of each stock, and assess the health of dolphins within stocks.

In this context, House Bill 598 is an important and worthy step. Although it authorizes no new funding or mandates for research or management, its formal recognition of bottlenose dolphins as a significant part of the state’s coastal ecosystem would increase public and scientific attention, and could encourage state, federal and non-governmental agencies and groups to use their own resources and abilities to help meet needs related to local bottlenose dolphin research and conservation.

With public support for House Bill 598 over the coming months in the form of letters to elected state representatives, it’s possible that bottlenose dolphins could be the official North Carolina marine mammal before the end of the year.